Fusion of the occipitomastoidal synchondrosis as a developmental marker in the Sima de los Huesos Crania (Atapuerca, Spain)

The basicranium contains multiple synchondroses potentially informative for estimating the developmental stage of individuals. The basilar synchondrosis has been routinely used for this purpose in bioarchaeological, forensic and paleoanthropological research, and studies carried out in modern human populations have shown a close relationship between the fusion of the occipitomastoidal synchondrosis and developmental processes. This synchondrosis articulates the jugular process of the occipital bone with the jugular surface of the temporal bone. As the process of fusion of the synchondrosis progresses, the jugular surface undergoes a series of alterations whose study allows to establish the state of fusion of the synchondrosis when the individual died. The extraordinary preservation of the jugular surface in a large number of individuals represented in the fossil hominin sample from the middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos (SH) has made it possible to carry out the first systematic study to assess the usefulness of occipitomastoidal synchondrosis in the establishment of the state of development in fossil hominins. Our results show that the complete closure of the occipitomastoidal synchondrosis occurred toward the end of the growth period in the SH fossils. This result opens up the possibility of using it to determine the developmental stage of fossil hominins for which no other information is available, such as the state of the dentition or the degree of closure of the basilar synchondrosis. This has allowed us to infer a state of development for three SH crania where it could not previously be established with certainty.

The Neandertal nature of the Atapuerca Sima de los Huesos mandibles

The recovery of additional mandibular fossils from the Atapuerca Sima de los Huesos (SH) site provides new insights into the evolutionary significance of this sample. In particular, morphological descriptions of the new adult specimens are provided, along with standardized metric data and phylogenetically relevant morphological features for the expanded adult sample. The new and more complete specimens extend the known range of variation in the Atapuerca (SH) mandibles in some metric and morphological details. In other aspects, the addition of new specimens has made it possible to confirm previous observations based on more limited evidence. Pairwise comparisons of individual metric variables revealed the only significant difference between the Atapuerca (SH) hominins and Neandertals was a more vertical symphysis in the latter. Similarly, principal components analysis of size-adjusted variables showed a strong similarity between the Atapuerca (SH) hominins and Neandertals. Morphologically, the Atapuerca (SH) mandibles show nearly the full complement of Neandertal-derived features. Nevertheless, the Neandertals differ from the Atapuerca (SH) mandibles in showing a high frequency of the H/O mandibular foramen, a truncated, thinned and inverted gonial margin, a high placement of the mylohyoid line at the level of the M3, a more vertical symphysis and somewhat more pronounced expression of the chin structures. Size-related morphological variation in the SH hominins includes larger retromolar spaces, more posterior placement of the lateral corpus structures, and stronger markings associated with the muscles of mastication in larger specimens. However, phylogenetically relevant features in the SH sample are fairly stable and do not vary with the overall size of the mandible. Direct comparison of the enlarged mandibular sample from Atapuerca (SH) with the Mauer mandible, the type specimen of H. heidelbergensis, reveals important differences from the SH hominins, and there is no morphological counterpart of Mauer within the SH sample, suggesting the SH fossils should not be assigned to this taxon. The Atapuerca (SH) mandibles show a greater number of derived Neandertal features, particularly those related to midfacial prognathism and in the configuration of the superior ramus, than other European middle Pleistocene specimens. This suggests that more than one evolutionary lineage co-existed in the middle Pleistocene, and, broadly speaking, it appears possible to separate the European middle Pleistocene mandibular remains into two distinct groupings. One group shows a suite of derived Neandertal features and includes specimens from the sites of Atapuerca (SH), Payre, l'Aubesier and Ehringsdorf. The other group includes specimens that generally lack derived Neandertal features and includes the mandibles from the sites of Mauer, Mala Balanica, Montmaurin and (probably) Visogliano. The two published Arago mandibles differ strongly from one another, with Arago 2 probably belonging to this former group, and Neandertal affinities being more difficult to identify in Arago 13. Outside of the SH sample, derived Neandertal features in the mandible only become more common during the second half of the middle Pleistocene. Acceptance of a cladogenetic pattern of evolution during the European middle Pleistocene has the potential to reconcile the predictions of the accretion model and the two phases model for the appearance of Neandertal morphology. The precise taxonomic classification of the SH hominins must contemplate features from the dentition, cranium, mandible and postcranial skeleton, all of which are preserved at the SH site. Nevertheless, the origin of the Neandertal clade may be tied to a speciation event reflected in the appearance of a suite of derived Neandertal features in the face, dentition and mandible, all of which are present in the Atapuerca (SH) hominins. This same suite of features also provides a useful anatomical basis to include other European middle Pleistocene mandibles and crania within the Neandertal clade.

Taphonomic skeletal disturbances in the Sima de los Huesos postcranial remains

The postcranial skeleton of fossil hominins is crucial for reconstructing the processes that occurred between the time of death and the recovery of the bones. Thousands of postcranial skeletal fragments from at least 29 hominin individuals have been recovered from the Sima de los Huesos Middle Pleistocene site in Spain. This study's primary objective is to address the main taphonomic features of the postcranial remains from the Sima de los Huesos sample, including antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem skeletal disturbances. We present an updated assessment of the bone surface modification analysis, the fracture pattern analysis, and the skeletal part representation to facilitate interpretation of the biostratinomic and fossil-diagenetic processes in this large paleoanthropological collection. We conclude that carnivores (probably bears) had limited access to the hominin bones and complete bodies were probably placed in the site.

A symbolic Neanderthal accumulation of large herbivore crania

This work examines the possible behaviour of Neanderthal groups at the Cueva Des-Cubierta (central Spain) via the analysis of the latter's archaeological assemblage. Alongside evidence of Mousterian lithic industry, Level 3 of the cave infill was found to contain an assemblage of mammalian bone remains dominated by the crania of large ungulates, some associated with small hearths. The scarcity of post-cranial elements, teeth, mandibles and maxillae, along with evidence of anthropogenic modification of the crania (cut and percussion marks), indicates that the carcasses of the corresponding animals were initially processed outside the cave, and the crania were later brought inside. A second round of processing then took place, possibly related to the removal of the brain. The continued presence of crania throughout Level 3 indicates that this behaviour was recurrent during this level's formation. This behaviour seems to have no subsistence-related purpose but to be more symbolic in its intent.

The ear of the Sima de los Huesos hominins (Atapuerca, Spain)

Previous studies on the morphology of the inner ear (semicircular canals and cochlea) in the Sima de los Huesos hominin sample have provided important results on the evolution of these structures in the Neandertal lineage. Similarly, studies of the anatomy of the external and middle ear cavities of the Sima de los Huesos hominins have also provided important data on the auditory capacities of this European Middle Pleistocene population. The present contribution provides unpublished data on three new middle ear variables from the Sima de los Huesos fossils and compares these data with values from samples of Pan troglodytes, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. The results of this analysis are combined with those obtained in previous studies to characterize the anatomy of the outer, middle and inner ear in the Sima de los Huesos fossils, as well as to establish the order of appearance of the features that characterize Neandertal ears. As in other cranial structures, the ear region in the Sima de los Huesos show a mosaic evolutionary pattern that includes primitive traits, others shared exclusively with Neandertals, and others that are specific to the Sima de los Huesos hominins. Neandertals and Sima de los Huesos hominins share two exclusive features of the middle ear that are among the first characteristics of the Neandertal lineage: a long tympanic cavity and a large entrance and exit of the mastoid antrum. Along with these traits, the Sima de los Huesos hominins present two specialized features: large volumes of the tympanic cavity and the mastoid antrum. Finally, the middle ear of the Neandertals is characterized by the presence of small angles between the tympanic axis and the plane of the oval window.

Geometric morphometric analysis of the bony labyrinth of the Sima de los Huesos hominins

The bony labyrinth contains phylogenetic information that can be used to determine interspecific differences between fossil hominins. The present study conducted a comparative 3D geometric morphometric analysis on the bony labyrinth of the Middle Pleistocene Sima de los Huesos (SH) hominins. The findings of this study corroborate previous multivariate analyses of the SH hominin bony labyrinth. The analysis of the semicircular canals revealed the SH hominin canal morphologies appear closer to those of the Neandertals than to those of Homo sapiens. This is attributable to a Neandertal-like ovoid anterior canal, and mediolaterally expanded, circular posterior canal. However, the SH hominins lack the increased torsion in the anterior canal and the inferior orientation of the lateral canal seen in Neandertals. The results of the cochlear analysis indicated that, although there is some overlap, there are notable differences between the SH hominins and the Neandertals. In particular, the SH hominin cochlea appears more constricted than in Neandertals in the first and second turns. A principal component analysis of the full bony labyrinth separated most SH hominins from the Neandertals, which largely clustered with modern humans. A covariance ratio analysis found a significant degree of modularity within the bony labyrinth of all three groups, with the SH hominins and Neandertals displaying the highest modularity. This modular signal in the bony labyrinth may be attributable to different selective pressures related to locomotion and audition. Overall, the results of this study confirm previous suggestions that the semicircular canals in the SH hominins are somewhat derived toward Neandertals, while their cochlea is largely primitive within the genus Homo.

Reassessment of the human mandible from Banyoles (Girona, Spain)

Since the discovery of a human mandible in 1887 near the present-day city of Banyoles, northeastern Spain, researchers have generally emphasized its archaic features, including the lack of chin structures, and suggested affinities with the Neandertals or European Middle Pleistocene (Chibanian) specimens. Uranium-series and electron spin resonance dating suggest the mandible dates to the Late Pleistocene (Tarantian), approximately ca. 45-66 ka. In this study, we reassessed the taxonomic affinities of the Banyoles mandible by comparing it to samples of Middle Pleistocene fossils from Africa and Europe, Neandertals, Early and Upper Paleolithic modern humans, and recent modern humans. We evaluated the frequencies and expressions of morphological features and performed a three-dimensional geometric morphometric analysis on a virtual reconstruction of Banyoles to capture overall mandibular shape. Our results revealed no derived Neandertal morphological features in Banyoles. While a principal component analysis based on Euclidean distances from the first two principal components clearly grouped Banyoles with both fossil and recent Homo sapiens individuals, an analysis of the Procrustes residuals demonstrated that Banyoles did not fit into any of the comparative groups. The lack of Neandertal features in Banyoles is surprising considering its Late Pleistocene age. A consideration of the Middle Pleistocene fossil record in Europe and southwest Asia suggests that Banyoles is unlikely to represent a late-surviving Middle Pleistocene population. The lack of chin structures also complicates an assignment to H. sapiens, although early fossil H. sapiens do show somewhat variable development of the chin structures. Thus, Banyoles represents a non-Neandertal Late Pleistocene European individual and highlights the continuing signal of diversity in the hominin fossil record. The present situation makes Banyoles a prime candidate for ancient DNA or proteomic analyses, which may shed additional light on its taxonomic affinities.

The bony labyrinth in the Aroeira 3 Middle Pleistocene cranium

The discovery of a partial cranium at the site of Aroeira (Portugal) dating to 389-436 ka augments the current sample of Middle Pleistocene European crania and makes this specimen penecontemporaneous with the fossils from the geographically close Atapuerca Sima de los Huesos (SH) and Arago sites. A recent study of the cranium documented a unique combination of primitive and derived features. The Aroeira 3 cranium preserves the right temporal bone, including the petrosal portion. Virtual reconstruction of the bony labyrinth from μCT scans provides an opportunity to examine its morphology. A series of standard linear and angular measures of the semicircular canals and cochlea in Aroeira 3 were compared with other fossil hominins and recent humans. Our analysis has revealed the absence of derived Neandertal features in Aroeira 3. In particular, the specimen lacks both the derived canal proportions and the low position of the posterior canal, two of the most diagnostic features of the Neandertal bony labyrinth, and Aroeira 3 is more primitive in these features than the Atapuerca (SH) sample. One potentially derived feature (low shape index of the cochlear basal turn) is shared between Aroeira 3 and the Atapuerca (SH) hominins, but is absent in Neandertals. The results of our study provide new insights into Middle Pleistocene population dynamics close to the origin of the Neandertal clade. In particular, the contrasting inner ear morphology between Aroeira 3 and the Atapuerca (SH) hominins suggests a degree of demographic isolation, despite the close geographic proximity and similar age of these two sites.

Fossil hominin radii from the Sima de los Huesos Middle Pleistocene site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain)

Complete radii in the fossil record preceding recent humans and Neandertals are very scarce. Here we introduce the radial remains recovered from the Sima de los Huesos (SH) site in the Sierra de Atapuerca between 1976 and 2011 and which have been dated in excess of 430 ky (thousands of years) ago. The sample comprises 89 specimens, 49 of which are attributed to adults representing a minimum of seven individuals. All elements are described anatomically and metrically, and compared with other fossil hominins and recent humans in order to examine the phylogenetic polarity of certain radial features. Radial remains from SH have some traits that differentiate them from those of recent humans and make them more similar to Neandertals, including strongly curved shafts, anteroposterior expanded radial heads and both absolutely and relatively long necks. In contrast, the SH sample differs from Neandertals in showing a high overall gracility as well as a high frequency (80%) of an anteriorly oriented radial tuberosity. Thus, like the cranial and dental remains from the SH site, characteristic Neandertal radial morphology is not present fully in the SH radii. We also analyzed the cross-sectional properties of the SH radial sample at two different levels: mid-shaft and at the midpoint of the neck length. When standardized by shaft length, no difference in the mid-shaft cross-sectional properties were found between the SH hominins, Neandertals and recent humans. Nevertheless, due to their long neck length, the SH hominins show a higher lever efficiency than either Neandertals or recent humans. Functionally, the SH radial morphology is consistent with more efficient pronation-supination and flexion-extension movements. The particular trait composition in the SH sample and Neandertals resembles more closely morphology evident in recent human males.

The bony labyrinth of the middle Pleistocene Sima de los Huesos hominins (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain)

We performed 3D virtual reconstructions based on CT scans to study the bony labyrinth morphology in 14 individuals from the large middle Pleistocene hominin sample from the site of the Sima de los Huesos (SH) in the Sierra de Atapuerca in northern Spain. The Atapuerca (SH) hominins represent early members of the Neandertal clade and provide an opportunity to compare the data with the later in time Neandertals, as well as Pleistocene and recent humans more broadly. The Atapuerca (SH) hominins do not differ from the Neandertals in any of the variables related to the absolute and relative sizes and shape of the semicircular canals. Indeed, the entire Neandertal clade seems to be characterized by a derived pattern of canal proportions, including a relatively small posterior canal and a relatively large lateral canal. In contrast, one of the most distinctive features observed in Neandertals, the low placement of the posterior canal (i.e., high sagittal labyrinthine index), is generally not present in the Atapuerca (SH) hominins. This low placement is considered a derived feature in Neandertals and is correlated with a more vertical orientation of the ampullar line (LSCm < APA), posterior surface of the petrous pyramid (LSCm > PPp), and third part of the facial canal (LSCm < FC3). Some variation is present within the Atapuerca (SH) sample, however, with a few individuals approaching the Neandertal condition more closely. In addition, the cochlear shape index in the Atapuerca (SH) hominins is low, indicating a reduction in the height of the cochlea. Although the phylogenetic polarity of this feature is less clear, the low shape index in the Atapuerca (SH) hominins may be a derived feature. Regardless, cochlear height subsequently increased in Neandertals. In contrast to previous suggestions, the expanded data in the present study indicate no difference across the genus Homo in the angle of inclination of the cochlear basal turn (COs < LSCm). Principal components analysis largely confirms these observations. While not fully resolved, the low placement of the posterior canal in Neandertals may be related to some combination of absolutely large brain size, a wide cranial base, and an archaic pattern of brain allometry. This more general explanation would not necessarily follow taxonomic lines, even though this morphology of the bony labyrinth occurs at high frequencies among Neandertals. While a functional interpretation of the relatively small vertical canals in the Neandertal clade remains elusive, the relative proportions of the semicircular canals is one of several derived Neandertal features in the Atapuerca (SH) crania. Examination of additional European middle Pleistocene specimens suggests that the full suite of Neandertal features in the bony labyrinth did not emerge in Europe until perhaps <200 kya.

Early hominin auditory capacities

Studies of sensory capacities in past life forms have offered new insights into their adaptations and lifeways. Audition is particularly amenable to study in fossils because it is strongly related to physical properties that can be approached through their skeletal structures. We have studied the anatomy of the outer and middle ear in the early hominin taxa Australopithecus africanus and Paranthropus robustus and estimated their auditory capacities. Compared with chimpanzees, the early hominin taxa are derived toward modern humans in their slightly shorter and wider external auditory canal, smaller tympanic membrane, and lower malleus/incus lever ratio, but they remain primitive in the small size of their stapes footplate. Compared with chimpanzees, both early hominin taxa show a heightened sensitivity to frequencies between 1.5 and 3.5 kHz and an occupied band of maximum sensitivity that is shifted toward slightly higher frequencies. The results have implications for sensory ecology and communication, and suggest that the early hominin auditory pattern may have facilitated an increased emphasis on short-range vocal communication in open habitats.

Reassessment of the La Ferrassie 3 Neandertal ossicular chain

The ossicular chain in La Ferrassie 3 was briefly described in the monograph on the La Ferrassie Neandertal children, but to date has not been the subject of detailed study. We provide new data on these important fossils and re-examine some previous suggestions of derived Neandertal features in the middle ear ossicles based on more limited evidence. The malleus shows a curved lateral margin of the manubrium and a relatively large head. The incus shows a tall articular facet, a depressed area on the medial surface of the body, a straight anterior border of the long process and a more closed angle between the processes. The stapes shows an asymmetrical configuration of the crura, with an anteriorly skewed head, and generally small dimensions, including a smaller and relatively wider stapedial footplate. These same features can also be seen in the few other Neandertal ear ossicles known, suggesting that a consistent anatomical pattern characterizes the Neandertal ossicular chain. While the phylogenetic polarity of many of these features remains to be clarified, the asymmetrical stapes and anteriorly skewed stapedial head appear to be derived Neandertal features. In addition, while the larger malleus head and incus articular facet in La Ferrassie 3 might reflect larger body mass in Neandertals, the larger stapes footplates in Homo sapiens cannot be explained by changes in body mass. Indeed, H. sapiens seems to depart from the general mammalian pattern in combining an increase in stapes footplate size with a decrease in body mass. Although the malleus/incus lever ratio in La Ferrassie 3 is similar to that in H. sapiens, Neandertals appear to be characterized by a slightly different spatial relationship and articulation of the ossicular chain within the tympanic cavity. While only limited inferences can be drawn regarding hearing ability based on the ossicles, the few physiologically relevant dimensions in the La Ferrassie 3 ear bones are similar to H. sapiens.

Partial genetic turnover in neandertals: continuity in the East and population replacement in the West

Remarkably little is known about the population-level processes leading up to the extinction of the neandertal. To examine this, we use mitochondrial DNA sequences from 13 neandertal individuals, including a novel sequence from northern Spain, to examine neandertal demographic history. Our analyses indicate that recent western European neandertals (<48 kyr) constitute a tightly defined group with low mitochondrial genetic variation in comparison with both eastern and older (>48 kyr) European neandertals. Using control region sequences, Bayesian demographic simulations provide higher support for a model of population fragmentation followed by separate demographic trajectories in subpopulations over a null model of a single stable population. The most parsimonious explanation for these results is that of a population turnover in western Europe during early Marine Isotope Stage 3, predating the arrival of anatomically modern humans in the region.

Middle Pleistocene dental remains from Qesem Cave (Israel)

This study presents a description and comparative analysis of Middle Pleistocene permanent and deciduous teeth from the site of Qesem Cave (Israel). All of the human fossils are assigned to the Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC) of the late Lower Paleolithic. The Middle Pleistocene age of the Qesem teeth (400-200 ka) places them chronologically earlier than the bulk of fossil hominin specimens previously known from southwest Asia. Three permanent mandibular teeth (C(1) -P(4) ) were found in close proximity in the lower part of the stratigraphic sequence. The small metric dimensions of the crowns indicate a considerable degree of dental reduction although the roots are long and robust. In contrast, three isolated permanent maxillary teeth (I(2) , C(1) , and M(3) ) and two isolated deciduous teeth that were found within the upper part of the sequence are much larger and show some plesiomorphous traits similar to those of the Skhul/Qafzeh specimens. Although none of the Qesem teeth shows a suite of Neanderthal characters, a few traits may suggest some affinities with members of the Neanderthal evolutionary lineage. However, the balance of the evidence suggests a closer similarity with the Skhul/Qafzeh dental material, although many of these resemblances likely represent plesiomorphous features.

Evolution of M1 crown size and cusp proportions in the genus Homo

Previous research into tooth crown dimensions and cusp proportions has proved to be a useful way to identify taxonomic differences in Pliocene and Pleistocene fossil hominins. The present study has identified changes in both M(1) crown size and cusp proportions within the genus Homo, with M(1) overall crown size reduction apparently occurring in two main stages. The first stage (a reduction of ca. 17%) is associated with the emergence of Homo ergaster and Homo erectus sensu stricto. The second stage (a reduction of ca. 10%) occurs in Homo sapiens, but the reduced modern human M(1) tooth crown size was only attained in Upper Paleolithic times. The absolute sizes of the individual cusps are highly positively correlated with overall crown size and dental reduction produces a reduction in the absolute size of each of the cusps. Most of the individual cusps scale isometrically with crown size, but the paracone shows a negative allometric relationship, indicating that the reduction in paracone size is less than in the other M(1) cusps. Thus, the phylogenetically oldest cusp in the upper molars also seems to be the most stable cusp (at least in the M(1)). The most striking change in M(1) cusp proportions is a change in the relative size of the areas of the paracone and metacone. The combination of a small relative paracone and a large relative metacone generally characterizes specimens attributed to early Homo, and the presence of this character state in Australopithecus and Paranthropus suggests it may represent the primitive condition for the later part of the hominin clade. In contrast, nearly all later Homo taxa, with the exception of Homo antecessor, show the opposite condition (i.e. a relatively large paracone and a relatively small metacone). This change in the relationship between the relative sizes of the paracone and metacone is related to an isometric reduction of the absolute size of the metacone. This metacone reduction occurs in the context of relative stability in the paracone as crown size decreases. Among later Homo taxa, both Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis show a further reduction of the metacone and an enlargement of the hypocone. Fossil and contemporary H. sapiens samples show a trend toward increasing the relative size of the protocone and decreasing the relative size of the hypocone. In Europe, modern human M(1) cusp proportions are essentially reached during the Upper Paleolithic. Although some variation was documented among the fossil taxa, we suggest that the relative size of the M(1) paracone and metacone areas may be useful for differentiating the earliest members of our genus from subsequent Homo species.

New Neandertal remains from Cova Negra (Valencia, Spain)

New Neandertal fossils from the Mousterian site of Cova Negra in the Valencia region of Spain are described, and a comprehensive study of the entire human fossil sample is provided. The new specimens significantly augment the sample of human remains from this site and make Cova Negra one of the richest human paleontological sites on the Iberian Peninsula. The new specimens include cranial and postcranial elements from immature individuals and provide an opportunity to study the ontogenetic appearance of adult Neandertal characteristics in this Pleistocene population. Children younger than 10 years of age constitute four of the seven minimum number of individuals in the sample, and this relative abundance of children at Cova Negra is similar that in to other Neandertal sites in Europe and southwest Asia. The recognition of diagnostic Neandertal features in several of the specimens, as well as their western European context and late Pleistocene age, suggests that all the human remains from Cova Negra represent Neandertals. The archaeological evidence from Cova Negra indicates sporadic, short-term occupations of the site, suggesting a high degree of mobility among Neandertals.

A Neandertal mandible from the Cova del Gegant (Sitges, Barcelona, Spain)

A human mandible from the site of Cova del Gegant is described here for the first time and compared with other Middle and Upper Pleistocene representatives of the genus Homo from Europe and Southwest Asia. The specimen was recovered from sediments which also yielded Mousterian stone tools and Pleistocene fauna. The preserved morphology of the mandible, particularly in the region of the mental foramen, clearly aligns it with the Neandertals, making the Cova del Gegant the only known site in Catalonia documenting diagnostic human skeletal remains in association with Middle Paleolithic stone tools. This represents an important new addition to the human fossil record from the Iberian Peninsula and joins the Bañolas mandible in documenting the course of human evolution in the northern Mediterranean region of Spain.

Auditory capacities in Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain

Human hearing differs from that of chimpanzees and most other anthropoids in maintaining a relatively high sensitivity from 2 kHz up to 4 kHz, a region that contains relevant acoustic information in spoken language. Knowledge of the auditory capacities in human fossil ancestors could greatly enhance the understanding of when this human pattern emerged during the course of our evolutionary history. Here we use a comprehensive physical model to analyze the influence of skeletal structures on the acoustic filtering of the outer and middle ears in five fossil human specimens from the Middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos in the Sierra de Atapuerca of Spain. Our results show that the skeletal anatomy in these hominids is compatible with a human-like pattern of sound power transmission through the outer and middle ear at frequencies up to 5 kHz, suggesting that they already had auditory capacities similar to those of living humans in this frequency range.

The Gravettian occipital bone from the site of Malladetes (Barx, Valencia, Spain)

The juvenile occipital bone from the site of Malladetes in Valencia (Spain) is described and compared with other European Pleistocene representatives of the genus Homo. This specimen derives from a Gravettian cultural context and has been AMS radiocarbon-dated to 25,120 +/- 240 years BP. As such, it provides evidence on early modern human anatomy from the Central Mediterranean region of the Iberian peninsula. The clear evidence for a late survival of Neandertals in southern Iberia, has led to considerable debate surrounding the biological and cultural interactions between these Pleistocene humans and their early modern human successors, and it is within this context that the Malladetes specimen represents an important contribution to the discussion. The recently discovered Upper Paleolithic infant from the site of Lagar Velho in Portugal is said to show a mosaic of Neandertal and early modern human characteristics throughout the skeleton and is argued to represent the strongest evidence yet recovered in favor of hybridization between these two Pleistocene populations. Our analysis of the Malladetes occipital, however, reveals no evidence of Neandertal genetic influence.

The martial arts and mental health: the challenge of managing energy

The effective management of energy is an important dimension in the martial arts as well as the mental health professions. The Oriental concept of Ki is described, noting its Indian, Chinese, and Japanese development. Ki and the transfer of energy is studied through the martial encounter, using concepts borrowed from Japanese swordsmanship. Ki is also discussed from a developmental context as youngsters progress in Tae Kwon Do training. In examining the disciplines of Aikido, Tae Kwon Do, and Karate, it becomes clear that more is involved than kicking, punching, and throwing bodies on the floor. These martial arts have some important statements to make in the area of mental health, particularly in terms of energy--within our bodies, psyches, interpersonal relationships, and the universe.