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Dastjerdi A, Strong R, La Rocca SA, Wessels M, Wessels J, Whitaker K, Strugnell B, Williamson S. Investigation into an outbreak of Border disease virus in pigs in England. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:1698-1706. [PMID: 35353447 PMCID: PMC9544453 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Border disease (BD) was first reported in 1959 in lambs from the border region of England and Wales. The causative virus (BD virus; BDV) has since been identified in several other ruminant species and pigs. The virus is prevalent in sheep flocks of UK, Europe and USA and has potential to inflict substantial economic losses. Natural BDV infection of pigs was first reported in the UK in 1992 from pigs with haemorrhagic lesions and more recently from healthy pigs in Spain and Japan. Here, a persistent problem of poor growth and anaemia in a small proportion of growing pigs on a mixed pig and sheep holding was investigated and tissues were tested in a pan viral microarray. The microarray detected BDV RNA in several tissues which was further confirmed by sequencing, specific BDV PCR and immunohistochemistry. Phylogenetically, the virus clustered with other BDVs in the sub‐genotype 1b. This investigation highlights likely interspecies transmission of pestiviruses and their impact on pestivirus detection and eradication programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akbar Dastjerdi
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Rebecca Strong
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - S Anna La Rocca
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Mark Wessels
- APHA-Preston, Animal Health Centre, Barton Hall, Garstang Road, Barton, Preston, . PR3 5HE, UK
| | - Julie Wessels
- APHA-Bury St. Edmunds, Rougham Hill, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, IP33 2RX, UK
| | - Kate Whitaker
- APHA-Preston, Animal Health Centre, Barton Hall, Garstang Road, Barton, Preston, . PR3 5HE, UK
| | - Ben Strugnell
- APHA-Thirsk, West House, Station Road, Thirsk, YO7 1PZ, UK
| | - Susanna Williamson
- APHA-Bury St. Edmunds, Rougham Hill, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, IP33 2RX, UK
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Dastjerdi A, La Rocca SA, Karuna S, Finnegan C, Peake J, Steinbach F. Examining bull semen for residues of Schmallenberg virus RNA. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:e153-e160. [PMID: 34343411 PMCID: PMC9544961 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus (SBV) was initially detected in 2011 in Germany from dairy cattle with fever and decreased milk yield. The virus infection is now established in many parts of the world with recurrent epidemics. SBV is transmitted through midges and transplacental. No direct virus transmission including via breeding has ever been demonstrated. In some bulls, however, the virus is detectable transiently, in low to minute quantities, in semen post-infection. While the infection is considered of low impact for the dairy industry, some SBV-free countries have adopted a zero-risk approach requiring bull semen batches to be tested for SBV RNA residues prior to import. This, in turn, obligates a protocol to enable sensitive detection of SBV RNA in semen samples for export purposes. Here, we describe how we established a now ISO/IEC 17025 accredited protocol that can effectively detect minute quantities of SBV RNA in semen and also its application to monitor bull semen during two outbreaks in the United Kingdom in 2012 and 2016. The data demonstrate that only a small number of bulls temporarily shed low amounts of SBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akbar Dastjerdi
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - S Anna La Rocca
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Siva Karuna
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Christopher Finnegan
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Julie Peake
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Falko Steinbach
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
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Wernike K, Reimann I, Banyard AC, Kraatz F, La Rocca SA, Hoffmann B, McGowan S, Hechinger S, Choudhury B, Aebischer A, Steinbach F, Beer M. High genetic variability of Schmallenberg virus M-segment leads to efficient immune escape from neutralizing antibodies. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009247. [PMID: 33497419 PMCID: PMC7872300 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is the cause of severe fetal malformations when immunologically naïve pregnant ruminants are infected. In those malformed fetuses, a "hot-spot"-region of high genetic variability within the N-terminal region of the viral envelope protein Gc has been observed previously, and this region co-localizes with a known key immunogenic domain. We studied a series of M-segments of those SBV variants from malformed fetuses with point mutations, insertions or large in-frame deletions of up to 612 nucleotides. Furthermore, a unique cell-culture isolate from a malformed fetus with large in-frame deletions within the M-segment was analyzed. Each Gc-protein with amino acid deletions within the "hot spot" of mutations failed to react with any neutralizing anti-SBV monoclonal antibodies or a domain specific antiserum. In addition, in vitro virus replication of the natural deletion variant could not be markedly reduced by neutralizing monoclonal antibodies or antisera from the field. The large-deletion variant of SBV that could be isolated in cell culture was highly attenuated with an impaired in vivo replication following the inoculation of sheep. In conclusion, the observed amino acid sequence mutations within the N-terminal main immunogenic domain of glycoprotein Gc result in an efficient immune evasion from neutralizing antibodies in the special environment of a developing fetus. These SBV-variants were never detected as circulating viruses, and therefore should be considered to be dead-end virus variants, which are not able to spread further. The observations described here may be transferred to other orthobunyaviruses, particularly those of the Simbu serogroup that have been shown to infect fetuses. Importantly, such mutant strains should not be included in attempts to trace the spatial-temporal evolution of orthobunyaviruses in molecular-epidemiolocal approaches during outbreak investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Wernike
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ilona Reimann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Franziska Kraatz
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Germany
| | - S. Anna La Rocca
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Bernd Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Sarah McGowan
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Silke Hechinger
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Bhudipa Choudhury
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Aebischer
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Falko Steinbach
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Germany
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Riitho V, Larska M, Strong R, La Rocca SA, Locker N, Alenius S, Steinbach F, Liu L, Uttenthal Å, Graham SP. Comparative analysis of adaptive immune responses following experimental infections of cattle with bovine viral diarrhoea virus-1 and an Asiatic atypical ruminant pestivirus. Vaccine 2018; 36:4494-4500. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Steinbach F, Dastjerdi A, Peake J, La Rocca SA, Tobin FP, Frossard JP, Williamson S. A retrospective study detects a novel variant of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus in England in archived material from the year 2000. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2564. [PMID: 27812401 PMCID: PMC5088618 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Outbreaks of porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED) were first recorded in England in the 1970s and continued to be confirmed until 2002. Retrospective analysis of archived material from one of the last confirmed cases in England in the year 2000 demonstrates the previous existence of a very diverse PED virus strain. Following the outbreaks of PED in North America in 2013, there has been renewed interest in phylogenetic analysis of sequences from PEDV strains worldwide. There is a gap in the available sequence data between the mid 1980s and the mid 2000s. This work is an example of how this gap can be at least partially filled by the examination of archived material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Falko Steinbach
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Akbar Dastjerdi
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Julie Peake
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - S. Anna La Rocca
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Frank P. Tobin
- Holmefield Farm Services Ltd, Murton, Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Pierre Frossard
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Susanna Williamson
- Surveillance Intelligence Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, United Kingdom
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Molenaar FM, La Rocca SA, Khatri M, Lopez J, Steinbach F, Dastjerdi A. Exposure of Asian Elephants and Other Exotic Ungulates to Schmallenberg Virus. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135532. [PMID: 26274399 PMCID: PMC4537289 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is an emerging Orthobunyavirus, first described in 2011 in cattle in Germany and subsequently spread throughout Europe, affecting mainly ruminant livestock through the induction of foetal malformations. To gain a better understanding of the spectrum of susceptible species and to assess the value of current SBV serological assays, screening of serum samples from exotic artiodactyls and perissodactyls collected at the Living Collections from the Zoological Society of London (Whipsnade and London Zoos) and Chester Zoo was carried out. There was compelling evidence of SBV infection in both zoological collections. The competitive ELISA has proved to be applicable for the detection of SBV in exotic Bovidae, Cervidae, Suidae, Giraffidae and most notably in endangered Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), but unreliable for the screening of Camelidae, for which the plaque reduction neutralisation test was considered the assay of choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fieke M. Molenaar
- Zoological Society of London, ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - S. Anna La Rocca
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Meenakshi Khatri
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Javier Lopez
- Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, Cheshire, United Kingdom
| | - Falko Steinbach
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Akbar Dastjerdi
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
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Mansfield KL, Rocca SAL, Khatri M, Johnson N, Steinbach F, Fooks AR. WITHDRAWN: Corrigendum to “Detection of Schmallenberg virus serum neutralising antibodies” [J. Virol. Methods 188 (March (1-2)) (2013) 139–144]. J Virol Methods 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) emerged in continental Europe in late 2011, and further work is required to assess the prevalence of SBV throughout Europe. Since its detection in Germany, SBV has now been detected in other European countries, including the United Kingdom. Infection with SBV can cause mild clinical signs in ruminants, including diarrhoea and reduced milk yield. However, the virus can have a devastating effect on the developing foetus leading to malformation in newborn offspring. This is a feature shared by other members of the Simbu group of orthobunyaviruses. Since disease in adult animals can be inapparent, serology offers the best method for monitoring for the presence of SBV and assisting in livestock management. This protocol describes a method for initial titration of SBV on African Green Monkey kidney (Vero) cells, and a plaque reduction neutralisation test (PRNT) for the detection of neutralising antibodies against SBV in cattle and sheep sera. This assay can be used to screen ruminant sera in order to confirm exposure to the virus, and the results obtained are comparable to a recently developed commercial enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Thus, these two assays constitute an effective diagnostic tool-box for providing confirmation of exposure to SBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Mansfield
- Wildlife Disease and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency-AHVLA, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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Graham SP, Haines FJ, Johns HL, Sosan O, La Rocca SA, Lamp B, Rümenapf T, Everett HE, Crooke HR. Characterisation of vaccine-induced, broadly cross-reactive IFN-γ secreting T cell responses that correlate with rapid protection against classical swine fever virus. Vaccine 2012; 30:2742-8. [PMID: 22366027 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2011] [Revised: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 02/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Live attenuated C-strain classical swine fever viruses (CSFV) provide a rapid onset of protection, but the lack of a serological test that can differentiate vaccinated from infected animals limits their application in CSF outbreaks. Since immunity may precede antibody responses, we examined the kinetics and specificity of peripheral blood T cell responses from pigs vaccinated with a C-strain vaccine and challenged after five days with a genotypically divergent CSFV isolate. Vaccinated animals displayed virus-specific IFN-γ responses from day 3 post-challenge, whereas, unvaccinated challenge control animals failed to mount a detectable response. Both CD4(+) and cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells were identified as the cellular source of IFN-γ. IFN-γ responses showed extensive cross-reactivity when T cells were stimulated with CSFV isolates spanning the major genotypes. To determine the specificity of these responses, T cells were stimulated with recombinant CSFV proteins and a proteome-wide peptide library from a related virus, BVDV. Major cross-reactive peptides were mapped on the E2 and NS3 proteins. Finally, IFN-γ was shown to exert potent antiviral effects on CSFV in vitro. These data support the involvement of broadly cross-reactive T cell IFN-γ responses in the rapid protection conferred by the C-strain vaccine and this information should aid the development of the next generation of CSFV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon P Graham
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom.
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La Rocca SA, Herbert RJ, Crooke H, Drew TW, Wileman TE, Powell PP. Loss of interferon regulatory factor 3 in cells infected with classical swine fever virus involves the N-terminal protease, Npro. J Virol 2005; 79:7239-47. [PMID: 15890962 PMCID: PMC1112113 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.11.7239-7247.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We show that cells infected with the pestivirus classical swine fever virus (CSFV) fail to produce alpha/beta interferon not only following treatment with double-stranded RNA but also after superinfection with a heterologous virus, the alphavirus Sindbis virus, a virus shown to normally induce interferon. We investigated whether the inhibition of interferon synthesis by CSFV involved a block in interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) activity. Cells infected with CSFV exhibited a lack of translocation of green fluorescent protein-IRF3 to the nucleus; however, constitutive shuttling of IRF3 was not blocked, since it could still accumulate in the nucleus in the presence of leptomycin B. Interestingly subcellular fractionation analysis showed that IRF3 was lost from the cytoplasm of infected cells from 18 h postinfection onwards. Using IRF3 promoter-luciferase reporter constructs, we demonstrate that loss of IRF3 was due to an inhibition of transcription of the IRF3 gene in CSFV-infected cells. Further, we investigated which viral protein may be responsible for the inhibition of interferon and loss of IRF3. We used cell lines expressing the CSFV N-terminal protease (Npro) to show that this single viral protein, unique to pestiviruses, inhibited interferon production in response to Sindbis virus. In addition to being lost from CSFV-infected cells, IRF3 was lost from Npro-expressing cells. The results demonstrate a novel viral evasion of innate host defenses, where interferon synthesis is prevented by inhibiting transcription of IRF3 in CSFV-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Anna La Rocca
- Department of Immunology, BBSRC Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF, United Kingdom
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Carreira S, Goodall J, Aksan I, La Rocca SA, Galibert MD, Denat L, Larue L, Goding CR. Mitf cooperates with Rb1 and activates p21Cip1 expression to regulate cell cycle progression. Nature 2005; 433:764-9. [PMID: 15716956 DOI: 10.1038/nature03269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2004] [Accepted: 12/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The controls that enable melanoblasts and melanoma cells to proliferate are likely to be related, but so far no key regulator of cell cycle progression specific to the melanocyte lineage has been identified. The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor Mitf has a crucial but poorly defined role in melanoblast and melanocyte survival and in differentiation. Here we show that Mitf can act as a novel anti-proliferative transcription factor able to induce a G1 cell-cycle arrest that is dependent on Mitf-mediated activation of the p21(Cip1) (CDKN1A) cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor gene. Moreover, cooperation between Mitf and the retinoblastoma protein Rb1 potentiates the ability of Mitf to activate transcription. The results indicate that Mitf-mediated activation of p21Cip1 expression and consequent hypophosphorylation of Rb1 will contribute to cell cycle exit and activation of the differentiation programme. The mutation of genes associated with melanoma, such as INK4a or BRAF that would affect either Mitf cooperation with Rb1 or Mitf stability respectively, would impair Mitf-mediated cell cycle control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Carreira
- Signalling and Development Laboratory, Marie Curie Research Institute, The Chart, Oxted, Surrey RH8 OTL, UK
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