1
|
Petrelli A, Rizzolio S, Pietrantonio F, Bellomo SE, Benelli M, De Cecco L, Romagnoli D, Berrino E, Orrù C, Ribisi S, Moya-Rull D, Migliore C, Conticelli D, Maina IM, Puliga E, Serra V, Pellegrino B, Llop-Guevara A, Musolino A, Siena S, Sartore-Bianchi A, Prisciandaro M, Morano F, Antista M, Fumagalli U, De Manzoni G, Degiuli M, Baiocchi GL, Amisano MF, Ferrero A, Marchiò C, Corso S, Giordano S. BRCA2 Germline Mutations Identify Gastric Cancers Responsive to PARP Inhibitors. Cancer Res 2023; 83:1699-1710. [PMID: 37129948 PMCID: PMC10183806 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-22-2620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Despite negative results of clinical trials conducted on the overall population of patients with gastric cancer, PARP inhibitor (PARPi) therapeutic strategy still might represent a window of opportunity for a subpopulation of patients with gastric cancer. An estimated 7% to 12% of gastric cancers exhibit a mutational signature associated with homologous recombination (HR) failure, suggesting that these patients could potentially benefit from PARPis. To analyze responsiveness of gastric cancer to PARPi, we exploited a gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma (GEA) platform of patient-derived xenografts (PDX) and PDX-derived primary cells and selected 10 PDXs with loss-of-function mutations in HR pathway genes. Cell viability assays and preclinical trials showed that olaparib treatment was effective in PDXs harboring BRCA2 germline mutations and somatic inactivation of the second allele. Olaparib responsive tumors were sensitive to oxaliplatin as well. Evaluation of HR deficiency (HRD) and mutational signatures efficiently stratified responder and nonresponder PDXs. A retrospective analysis on 57 patients with GEA showed that BRCA2 inactivating variants were associated with longer progression-free survival upon platinum-based regimens. Five of 7 patients with BRCA2 germline mutations carried the p.K3326* variant, classified as "benign." However, familial history of cancer, the absence of RAD51 foci in tumor cells, and a high HRD score suggest a deleterious effect of this mutation in gastric cancer. In conclusion, PARPis could represent an effective therapeutic option for BRCA2-mutated and/or high HRD score patients with GEA, including patients with familial intestinal gastric cancer. SIGNIFICANCE PARP inhibition is a potential strategy for treating patients with gastric cancer with mutated BRCA2 or homologous repair deficiency, including patients with familial intestinal gastric cancer, for whom BRCA2 germline testing should be recommended.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Filippo Pietrantonio
- Medical Oncology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara E Bellomo
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Matteo Benelli
- Bioinformatics Unit, Oncology Department, Nuovo Ospedale-Santo Stefano, Prato, Italy
| | - Loris De Cecco
- Molecular Mechanisms Unit, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Dario Romagnoli
- Bioinformatics Unit, Oncology Department, Nuovo Ospedale-Santo Stefano, Prato, Italy
| | - Enrico Berrino
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Claudia Orrù
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Salvatore Ribisi
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| | | | - Cristina Migliore
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Daniela Conticelli
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Irene M Maina
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| | | | - Violeta Serra
- Experimental Therapeutics Group, Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Benedetta Pellegrino
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Oncology and Breast Unit, University Hospital of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Gruppo Oncologico Italiano di Ricerca Clinica (GOIRC), Parma, Italy
| | - Alba Llop-Guevara
- Experimental Therapeutics Group, Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonino Musolino
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Oncology and Breast Unit, University Hospital of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Gruppo Oncologico Italiano di Ricerca Clinica (GOIRC), Parma, Italy
| | - Salvatore Siena
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-oncology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- Niguarda Cancer Center, Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Sartore-Bianchi
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-oncology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- Niguarda Cancer Center, Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Milan, Italy
| | - Michele Prisciandaro
- Medical Oncology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-oncology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Morano
- Medical Oncology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Antista
- Medical Oncology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Uberto Fumagalli
- Digestive Surgery, European Institute of Oncology, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni De Manzoni
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Dentistry, Gynecology and Pediatrics, Section of Surgery, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Gian Luca Baiocchi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marco F Amisano
- Department of Surgery, Santo Spirito Hospital, ASL-AL, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Caterina Marchiò
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Simona Corso
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Silvia Giordano
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Fard D, Testa E, Panzeri V, Rizzolio S, Bianchetti G, Napolitano V, Masciarelli S, Fazi F, Maulucci G, Scicchitano BM, Sette C, Viscomi MT, Tamagnone L. SEMA6C: a novel adhesion-independent FAK and YAP activator, required for cancer cell viability and growth. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:111. [PMID: 37002363 PMCID: PMC10066115 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-04756-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Transmembrane semaphorins are signaling molecules, controlling axonal wiring and embryo development, which are increasingly implicated in human diseases. Semaphorin 6C (Sema6C) is a poorly understood family member and its functional role is still unclear. Upon targeting Sema6C expression in a range of cancer cells, we observed dramatic growth suppression, decreased ERK phosphorylation, upregulation of cell cycle inhibitor proteins p21, p27 and p53, and the onset of cell senescence, associated with activation of autophagy. These data are consistent with a fundamental requirement for Sema6C to support viability and growth in cancer cells. Mechanistically, we unveiled a novel signaling pathway elicited by Sema6C, and dependent on its intracellular domain, mediated by tyrosine kinases c-Abl and Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK). Sema6C was found in complex with c-Abl, and induced its phosphorylation, which in turn led to FAK activation, independent of cell-matrix adhesion. Sema6C-induced FAK activity was furthermore responsible for increased nuclear localization of YAP transcriptional regulator. Moreover, Sema6C conferred YAP signaling-dependent long-term cancer cell survival upon nutrient deprivation. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that Sema6C elicits a cancer promoting-signaling pathway sustaining cell viability and self-renewal, independent of growth factors and nutrients availability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Damon Fard
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Erika Testa
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Panzeri
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Giada Bianchetti
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Virginia Napolitano
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Masciarelli
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Section of Histology and Medical Embryology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Fazi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Section of Histology and Medical Embryology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Maulucci
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Bianca Maria Scicchitano
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudio Sette
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Viscomi
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Tamagnone
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy.
- Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli-IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Corso S, Petrelli A, Rizzolio S, Pietrantonio F, Bellomo S, Benelli M, De Cecco L, Romagnoli D, Serra V, Pellegrino B, Giordano S. Identification of a subpopulation of patients with gastric cancer responsive to PARP inhibitors. J Clin Oncol 2023. [DOI: 10.1200/jco.2023.41.4_suppl.432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
432 Background: Treatment with PARP inhibitors (PARPi) has been approved in some tumors bearing a deficient Homologous Recombination (HR) system. Despite negative results of clinical trials conducted on the overall population of gastric cancer (GC) patients, we wondered whether a PARPi therapeutic strategy might represent a window of opportunity for a subpopulation of these patients. 7-12% of gastric cancers exhibit a mutational signature associated with HR failure, suggesting that these patients might benefit from PARPi. Methods: To analyze responsiveness to PARPi we exploited a proprietary human Gastro-Esophageal Adenocarcinoma (GEA) annotated platform of Patient-Derived Xenografts (PDXs) and PDX-derived primary cells on which we performed in vivo and in vitro experiments. Results: We selected 10 PDXs with loss-of-function mutations in HR pathway genes. Cell viability assays and preclinical trials showed that treatment with PARPi was effective in PDXs harbouring BRCA2 germline mutations and somatic inactivation of the second allele in a microsatellite stable background. PARPi responsive tumors were sensitive to oxaliplatin as well. Evaluation of HR deficiency and mutational signatures efficiently stratified responder vs non-responder PDXs. A retrospective analysis on 57 GEA patients showed that those carrying BRCA2 inactivating variants had longer PFS upon platinum-based regimens (used as proxy). In 5 out of 7 BRCA2 germline mutated patients we identified the p.K3326* variant, currently classified as “benign”. However, familial history of cancer, the absence of RAD51 foci in the tumor cells and a high HR deficiency score suggest a deleterious effect for this mutation in gastric cancer. Conclusions: PARP inhibition could represent a new therapeutic perspective for BRCA2 mutated and/or high HRD score GEA patients, including familial intestinal gastric cancer patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simona Corso
- University of Torino, Dept of Oncology; Candiolo Cancer Institute - FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo (Torino), Italy
| | - Annalisa Petrelli
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy, Candiolo (Torino), Italy
| | - Sabrina Rizzolio
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy, Candiolo (Torino), Italy
| | - Filippo Pietrantonio
- Medical Oncology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Bellomo
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy, Candiolo (Torino), Italy
| | - Matteo Benelli
- Department of Oncology and Bioinformatics Unit, Ospedale di Prato, Azienda USL Toscana Centro, Prato, Italy
| | - Loris De Cecco
- Molecular Mechanisms Unit, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Dario Romagnoli
- Bioinformatic Unit, Hospital of Prato, Istituto Toscano Tumori, Prato, Italy
| | - Violeta Serra
- Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology (VHIO), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rizzolio S, Giordano S, Corso S. The importance of being CAFs (in cancer resistance to targeted therapies). J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2022; 41:319. [PMID: 36324182 PMCID: PMC9632140 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-022-02524-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last two decades, clinical oncology has been revolutionized by the advent of targeted drugs. However, the efficacy of these therapies is significantly limited by primary and acquired resistance, that relies not only on cell-autonomous mechanisms but also on tumor microenvironment cues. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are extremely plastic cells of the tumor microenvironment. They not only produce extracellular matrix components that build up the structure of tumor stroma, but they also release growth factors, chemokines, exosomes, and metabolites that affect all tumor properties, including response to drug treatment. The contribution of CAFs to tumor progression has been deeply investigated and reviewed in several works. However, their role in resistance to anticancer therapies, and in particular to molecular therapies, has been largely overlooked. This review specifically dissects the role of CAFs in driving resistance to targeted therapies and discusses novel CAF targeted therapeutic strategies to improve patient survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Silvia Giordano
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Simona Corso
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
De Vlaeminck Y, Bonelli S, Awad RM, Dewilde M, Rizzolio S, Lecocq Q, Bolli E, Santos AR, Laoui D, Schoonooghe S, Tamagnone L, Goyvaerts C, Mazzone M, Breckpot K, Van Ginderachter JA. Targeting Neuropilin-1 with Nanobodies Reduces Colorectal Carcinoma Development. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12123582. [PMID: 33266104 PMCID: PMC7760077 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12123582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Neuropilin-1 is a co-receptor for semaphorins and vascular endothelial growth factor family members. Neuropilin-1 can be expressed on tumor cells, tumor-infiltrating myeloid and lymphoid cells and has been linked to a tumor-promoting environment. We investigated nanobodies (Nbs) targeting neuropilin-1 for their potential to hamper colorectal carcinoma development in mice. Our data suggest that targeting neuropilin-1 in cancer using neuropilin-1 blocking Nbs delays tumor growth and extends the survival through a shift in the anti-tumor macrophage/pro-tumor macrophage ratio and activation of colorectal cancer-specific CD8+ T cells. These findings provide a rationale for the further development of Nbs targeting human neuropilin-1 and bringing them from the bench to the bedside. Abstract Neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) is a co-receptor for semaphorins and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family members that can be expressed on cancer cells and tumor-infiltrating myeloid, endothelial and lymphoid cells. It has been linked to a tumor-promoting environment upon interaction with semaphorin 3A (Sema3A). Nanobodies (Nbs) targeting NRP-1 were generated for their potential to hamper the NRP-1/Sema3A interaction and their impact on colorectal carcinoma (CRC) development was evaluated in vivo through the generation of anti-NRP-1-producing CRC cells. We observed that tumor growth was significantly delayed and survival prolonged when the anti-NRP-1 Nbs were produced in vivo. We further analyzed the tumor microenvironment and observed that the pro-inflammatory MHC-IIhigh/trophic MHC-IIlow macrophage ratio was increased in tumors that produce anti-NRP-1 Nbs. This finding was corroborated by an increase in the expression of genes associated with MHC-IIhigh macrophages and a decrease in the expression of MHC-IIlow macrophage-associated genes in the macrophage pool sorted from anti-NRP-1 Nb-producing tumors. Moreover, we observed a significantly higher percentage of tumor-associated antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in tumors producing anti-NRP-1 Nbs. These data demonstrate that an intratumoral expression of NRP-1/Sema3A blocking biologicals increases anti-tumor immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yannick De Vlaeminck
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium; (Y.D.V.); (R.M.A.); (Q.L.); (C.G.)
| | - Stefano Bonelli
- Laboratory for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1040 Brussels, Belgium; (S.B.); (E.B.); (D.L.); (S.S.)
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1040 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Robin Maximilian Awad
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium; (Y.D.V.); (R.M.A.); (Q.L.); (C.G.)
| | - Maarten Dewilde
- VIB Discovery Sciences, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (M.D.); (A.R.S.)
| | | | - Quentin Lecocq
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium; (Y.D.V.); (R.M.A.); (Q.L.); (C.G.)
| | - Evangelia Bolli
- Laboratory for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1040 Brussels, Belgium; (S.B.); (E.B.); (D.L.); (S.S.)
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1040 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ana Rita Santos
- VIB Discovery Sciences, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (M.D.); (A.R.S.)
| | - Damya Laoui
- Laboratory for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1040 Brussels, Belgium; (S.B.); (E.B.); (D.L.); (S.S.)
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1040 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Steve Schoonooghe
- Laboratory for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1040 Brussels, Belgium; (S.B.); (E.B.); (D.L.); (S.S.)
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1040 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Luca Tamagnone
- Department of Life Sciences and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00100 Rome, Italy;
- Department of Oncology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, 00100 Rome, Italy
| | - Cleo Goyvaerts
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium; (Y.D.V.); (R.M.A.); (Q.L.); (C.G.)
| | - Massimiliano Mazzone
- Laboratory of Tumor Inflammation and Angiogenesis, VIB Center for Cancer Biology, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
- Department of Oncology, Laboratory of Tumor Inflammation and Angiogenesis, Center for Cancer Biology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Karine Breckpot
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium; (Y.D.V.); (R.M.A.); (Q.L.); (C.G.)
- Correspondence: (K.B.); (J.A.V.G.)
| | - Jo A. Van Ginderachter
- Laboratory for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1040 Brussels, Belgium; (S.B.); (E.B.); (D.L.); (S.S.)
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1040 Brussels, Belgium
- Correspondence: (K.B.); (J.A.V.G.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Orrù C, Perra A, Kowalik MA, Rizzolio S, Puliga E, Cabras L, Giordano S, Columbano A. Distinct Mechanisms Are Responsible for Nrf2-Keap1 Pathway Activation at Different Stages of Rat Hepatocarcinogenesis. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12082305. [PMID: 32824383 PMCID: PMC7463589 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12082305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of the Nrf2-Keap1 pathway, the main intracellular defense against environmental stress, has been observed in several human cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we assessed whether distinct mechanisms of activation may be involved at different stages of hepatocarcinogenesis. We adopted an experimental model consisting of treatment with diethylnitrosamine (DENA) followed by a choline-devoid methionine-deficient (CMD) diet for 4 months. The CMD diet was then replaced with a basal diet, and the animals were killed at 6, 10 or 13 months after DENA injection. Nrf2 activation occurred at early steps of hepatocarcinogenesis and persisted throughout the tumorigenic process. While Nrf2 mutations were extremely frequent at early steps (90%), their incidence diminished with the progression to malignancy (25%). Conversely, while p62 was almost undetectable in early nodules, its accumulation occurred in HCCs, suggesting that Nrf2 pathway activation at late stages is mainly due to Keap1 sequestration by p62. We demonstrate that, in a model of hepatocarcinogenesis resembling human non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, Nrf2 mutations are the earliest molecular changes responsible for the activation of the Nrf2-Keap1 pathway. The progressive loss of mutations associated with a concomitant p62 accumulation implies that distinct mechanisms are responsible for Nrf2-Keap1 pathway activation at different stages of hepatocarcinogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Orrù
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Cagliari, 09042 Cagliari, Italy; (C.O.); (M.A.K.); (L.C.)
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, 10124 Torino, Italy; (S.R.); (E.P.)
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, 10060 Candiolo, Italy
| | - Andrea Perra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Cagliari, 09042 Cagliari, Italy; (C.O.); (M.A.K.); (L.C.)
- Correspondence: (A.P.); (S.G.); (A.C.); Tel.: +39-070-6758292 (A.P.); +39-011-9933233 (S.G.); +39-070-6758345 (A.C.); Fax: +39-011-9933225 (S.G.)
| | - Marta Anna Kowalik
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Cagliari, 09042 Cagliari, Italy; (C.O.); (M.A.K.); (L.C.)
| | - Sabrina Rizzolio
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, 10124 Torino, Italy; (S.R.); (E.P.)
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, 10060 Candiolo, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Puliga
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, 10124 Torino, Italy; (S.R.); (E.P.)
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, 10060 Candiolo, Italy
| | - Lavinia Cabras
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Cagliari, 09042 Cagliari, Italy; (C.O.); (M.A.K.); (L.C.)
| | - Silvia Giordano
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, 10124 Torino, Italy; (S.R.); (E.P.)
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, 10060 Candiolo, Italy
- Correspondence: (A.P.); (S.G.); (A.C.); Tel.: +39-070-6758292 (A.P.); +39-011-9933233 (S.G.); +39-070-6758345 (A.C.); Fax: +39-011-9933225 (S.G.)
| | - Amedeo Columbano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Cagliari, 09042 Cagliari, Italy; (C.O.); (M.A.K.); (L.C.)
- Correspondence: (A.P.); (S.G.); (A.C.); Tel.: +39-070-6758292 (A.P.); +39-011-9933233 (S.G.); +39-070-6758345 (A.C.); Fax: +39-011-9933225 (S.G.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rizzolio S, Cagnoni G, Battistini C, Bonelli S, Isella C, Van Ginderachter JA, Bernards R, Di Nicolantonio F, Giordano S, Tamagnone L. Neuropilin-1 upregulation elicits adaptive resistance to oncogene-targeted therapies. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:3976-3990. [PMID: 29953416 DOI: 10.1172/jci99257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer cell dependence on activated oncogenes is therapeutically targeted, but acquired resistance is virtually unavoidable. Here we show that the treatment of addicted melanoma cells with BRAF inhibitors, and of breast cancer cells with HER2-targeted drugs, led to an adaptive rise in neuropilin-1 (NRP1) expression, which is crucial for the onset of acquired resistance to therapy. Moreover, NRP1 levels dictated the efficacy of MET oncogene inhibitors in addicted stomach and lung carcinoma cells. Mechanistically, NRP1 induced a JNK-dependent signaling cascade leading to the upregulation of alternative effector kinases EGFR or IGF1R, which in turn sustained cancer cell growth and mediated acquired resistance to BRAF, HER2, or MET inhibitors. Notably, the combination with NRP1-interfering molecules improved the efficacy of oncogene-targeted drugs and prevented or even reversed the onset of resistance in cancer cells and tumor models. Our study provides the rationale for targeting the NRP1-dependent upregulation of tyrosine kinases, which are responsible for loss of responsiveness to oncogene-targeted therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Rizzolio
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Oncology Department, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Gabriella Cagnoni
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Oncology Department, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Chiara Battistini
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Oncology Department, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Stefano Bonelli
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium.,Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Claudio Isella
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Oncology Department, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Jo A Van Ginderachter
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium.,Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - René Bernards
- Division of Molecular Carcinogenesis, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Federica Di Nicolantonio
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Oncology Department, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Silvia Giordano
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Oncology Department, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Luca Tamagnone
- Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Oncology Department, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rizzolio S, Battistini C, Cagnoni G, Apicella M, Vella V, Giordano S, Tamagnone L. Downregulating Neuropilin-2 Triggers a Novel Mechanism Enabling EGFR-Dependent Resistance to Oncogene-Targeted Therapies. Cancer Res 2017; 78:1058-1068. [PMID: 29229599 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-17-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Neuropilins are a class of cell surface proteins implicated in cell migration and angiogenesis, with aberrant expression in human tumors. Here, we show that the expression of Neuropilin-2 (NRP2) controls EGFR protein levels, thereby impinging on intracellular signaling, viability, and response to targeted therapies of oncogene-addicted cells. Notably, increased NRP2 expression in EGFR-addicted tumor cells led to downregulation of EGFR protein and tumor cell growth inhibition. NRP2 also blunted upregulation of an EGFR "rescue" pathway induced by targeted therapy in Met-addicted carcinoma cells. Cancer cells acquiring resistance to MET oncogene-targeted drugs invariably underwent NRP2 loss, a step required for EGFR upregulation. Mechanistic investigations revealed that NRP2 loss activated NFkB and upregulated the EGFR-associated protein KIAA1199/CEMIP, which is known to oppose the degradation of activated EGFR kinase. Notably, KIAA1199 silencing in oncogene-addicted tumor cells improved therapeutic responses and counteracted acquired drug resistance. Our findings define NRP2 as the pivotal switch of a novel broad-acting and actionable pathway controlling EGFR signaling, and driving resistance to therapies targeting oncogene-addiction.Significance: These important findings identify the cell surface molecule Nrp2 as the pivotal switch of a novel, actionable pathway driving EGFR upregulation and resistance to oncogene- targeted therapies. Cancer Res; 78(4); 1058-68. ©2017 AACR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Rizzolio
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Italy
| | - Chiara Battistini
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Italy
| | - Gabriella Cagnoni
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Italy
| | - Maria Apicella
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Italy
| | - Viviana Vella
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Italy
| | - Silvia Giordano
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy.,Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Italy
| | - Luca Tamagnone
- Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy. .,Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
Ligand-induced endocytosis of receptors exposed on the plasma membrane is a fundamental regulatory step for their functional activation and interaction with intracellular signal transducers. Thus, elucidating the timing of endocytosis and tracing the intracellular fate of receptors is instrumental to understand their signaling cascade in different conditions. Here we describe an assay for the study of endocytosis and intracellular trafficking of individual surface receptors, in living cells subject to different experimental challenges. We applied this method for studying the functional interaction between semaphorin coreceptor Neuropilin-1 and a tyrosine kinase receptor exposed on the cell surface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Rizzolio
- Laboratory of Cancer Cell Biology, Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Str. Prov. 142, 10060, Candiolo, TO, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, c/o IRCCS, S.P. 142, 10060, Candiolo, TO, Italy
| | - Luca Tamagnone
- Laboratory of Cancer Cell Biology, Candiolo Cancer Institute-FPO, IRCCS, Str. Prov. 142, 10060, Candiolo, TO, Italy.
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, c/o IRCCS, S.P. 142, 10060, Candiolo, TO, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Casazza A, Laoui D, Wenes M, Rizzolio S, Bassani N, Mambretti M, Deschoemaeker S, Van Ginderachter JA, Tamagnone L, Mazzone M. Impeding macrophage entry into hypoxic tumor areas by Sema3A/Nrp1 signaling blockade inhibits angiogenesis and restores antitumor immunity. Cancer Cell 2013; 24:695-709. [PMID: 24332039 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2013.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 438] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/10/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Recruitment of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) into avascular areas sustains tumor progression; however, the underlying guidance mechanisms are unknown. Here, we report that hypoxia-induced Semaphorin 3A (Sema3A) acts as an attractant for TAMs by triggering vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 phosphorylation through the associated holoreceptor, composed of Neuropilin-1 (Nrp1) and PlexinA1/PlexinA4. Importantly, whereas Nrp1 levels are downregulated in the hypoxic environment, Sema3A continues to regulate TAMs in an Nrp1-independent manner by eliciting PlexinA1/PlexinA4-mediated stop signals, which retain them inside the hypoxic niche. Consistently, gene deletion of Nrp1 in macrophages favors TAMs' entrapment in normoxic tumor regions, which abates their pro-angiogenic and immunosuppressive functions, hence inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis. This study shows that TAMs' heterogeneity depends on their localization, which is tightly controlled by Sema3A/Nrp1 signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Casazza
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Department of Oncology, Vesalius Research Center, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Damya Laoui
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Department of Molecular and Cellular Interactions, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Mathias Wenes
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Department of Oncology, Vesalius Research Center, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sabrina Rizzolio
- Institute for Cancer Research at Candiolo, Department of Oncology, University of Torino, 10060 Candiolo, Torino, Italy
| | - Nicklas Bassani
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Department of Oncology, Vesalius Research Center, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marco Mambretti
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Department of Oncology, Vesalius Research Center, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sofie Deschoemaeker
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Department of Oncology, Vesalius Research Center, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jo A Van Ginderachter
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Department of Molecular and Cellular Interactions, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Luca Tamagnone
- Institute for Cancer Research at Candiolo, Department of Oncology, University of Torino, 10060 Candiolo, Torino, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Mazzone
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Angiogenesis, Department of Oncology, Vesalius Research Center, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Casazza A, Finisguerra V, Capparuccia L, Camperi A, Swiercz JM, Rizzolio S, Rolny C, Christensen C, Bertotti A, Sarotto I, Risio M, Trusolino L, Weitz J, Schneider M, Mazzone M, Comoglio PM, Tamagnone L. Sema3E–Plexin D1 signaling drives human cancer cell invasiveness and metastatic spreading in mice. J Clin Invest 2013. [DOI: 10.1172/jci74037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
|
12
|
|
13
|
Rizzolio S, Rabinowicz N, Rainero E, Lanzetti L, Serini G, Norman J, Neufeld G, Tamagnone L. Neuropilin-1-dependent regulation of EGF-receptor signaling. Cancer Res 2012; 72:5801-11. [PMID: 22986738 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-12-0995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) is a coreceptor for multiple extracellular ligands. NRP1 is widely expressed in cancer cells and in advanced human tumors; however, its functional relevance and signaling mechanisms are unclear. Here, we show that NRP1 expression controls viability and proliferation of different cancer cells, independent of its short intracellular tail. We found that the extracellular domain of NRP1 interacts with the EGF receptor (EGFR) and promotes its signaling cascade elicited upon EGF or TGF-α stimulation. Upon NRP1 silencing, the ability of ligand-bound EGFR to cluster on the cell surface, internalize, and activate the downstream AKT pathway is severely impaired. EGFR is frequently activated in human tumors due to overexpression, mutation, or sustained autocrine/paracrine stimulation. Here we show that NRP1-blocking antibodies and NRP1 silencing can counteract ligand-induced EGFR activation in cancer cells. Thus our findings unveil a novel molecular mechanism by which NRP1 can control EGFR signaling and tumor growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Rizzolio
- Institute for Cancer Research at Candiolo, IRC@C, and University of Torino Medical School, Candiolo, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
Neuropilins comprise two homologous widely-expressed single-pass plasma membrane receptors (Nrp1 and Nrp2), originally identified for binding secreted Semaphorins and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors (in association with Plexins and VEGF-Receptors). Semaphorins have been implicated with opposite functions in cancer: either as putative tumor suppressors and anti-angiogenic factors, or mediating tumour angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. Moreover, due to their implication in VEGF signaling, neuropilins regulate vascular development and tumor angiogenesis. Recent evidence further suggests a role of neuropilins in cancer progression due to their interaction with receptor tyrosine kinases, adhesion molecules, and integrins. Furthermore, neuropilins have been implicated in response to additional growth factors, such as Hepatocyte Growth Factor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Transforming Growth Factor beta, Galectin, etc. Altogether, these data seem to qualify neuropilins as signaling platforms on the cell surface, potentially capable of regulating cancer cells, as well as cells of the tumor microenvironment. Intriguingly, clinical-pathological data often indicate a correlation between increased expression of neuropilins and advanced stage tumors with poor prognosis. In this article, we will review the current experimental evidence about the functional role of neuropilins in cancer and the underlying molecular mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Rizzolio
- Institute for Cancer Research (IRCC), University of Torino, Candiolo, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Casazza A, Finisguerra V, Capparuccia L, Camperi A, Swiercz JM, Rizzolio S, Rolny C, Christensen C, Bertotti A, Sarotto I, Risio M, Trusolino L, Weitz J, Schneider M, Mazzone M, Comoglio PM, Tamagnone L. Sema3E–Plexin D1 signaling drives human cancer cell invasiveness and metastatic spreading in mice. J Clin Invest 2011. [DOI: 10.1172/jci59033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
|
16
|
Casazza A, Finisguerra V, Capparuccia L, Camperi A, Swiercz JM, Rizzolio S, Rolny C, Christensen C, Bertotti A, Sarotto I, Risio M, Trusolino L, Weitz J, Schneider M, Mazzone M, Mazzone M, Comoglio PM, Tamagnone L. Sema3E-Plexin D1 signaling drives human cancer cell invasiveness and metastatic spreading in mice. J Clin Invest 2010; 120:2684-98. [PMID: 20664171 DOI: 10.1172/jci42118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2009] [Accepted: 05/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Semaphorin 3E (Sema3E) is a secreted molecule implicated in axonal path finding and inhibition of developmental and postischemic angiogenesis. Sema3E is also highly expressed in metastatic cancer cells, but its mechanistic role in tumor progression was not understood. Here we show that expression of Sema3E and its receptor Plexin D1 correlates with the metastatic progression of human tumors. Consistent with the clinical data, knocking down endogenous expression of either Sema3E or Plexin D1 in human metastatic carcinoma cells hampered their metastatic potential when injected into mice, while tumor growth was not markedly affected. Conversely, overexpression of exogenous Sema3E in cancer cells increased their invasiveness, transendothelial migration, and metastatic spreading, although it inhibited tumor vessel formation, resulting in reduced tumor growth in mice. The proinvasive and metastatic activity of Sema3E in tumor cells was dependent on transactivation of the Plexin D1-associated ErbB2/Neu oncogenic kinase. In sum, Sema3E-Plexin D1 signaling in cancer cells is crucially implicated in their metastatic behavior and may therefore be a promising target for strategies aimed at blocking tumor metastasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Casazza
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment, University of Torino Medical School, Candiolo, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
Semaphorins are a large family of secreted and membrane-bound molecules initially implicated in the development of the nervous system and in axon guidance. More recently, they have been found to regulate cell adhesion and cell motility, angiogenesis, immune function and tumour progression. Notably, Semaphorins have been implicated with opposite functions in cancer: either as putative tumor suppressors and anti-angiogenic factors, or as mediating tumour angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. Interestingly, Semaphorins may display divergent activities in different cell types. These multifaceted functions may be explained by the involvement of different kinds of semaphorin receptor complexes, and by the consequent activation of multiple signaling pathways, in different cells or different functional stages. Semaphorin signaling is largely mediated by the Plexins. However, semaphorin receptor complexes may also include Neuropilins and tyrosine kinases implicated in cancer. In this review, we will focus on major open questions concerning the potential role of Semaphorin signals in cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Rizzolio
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), Division of Molecular Oncology, University of Torino Medical School, Candiolo, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|