Investigating real-time physical activity behavior using ecological momentary assessment: Effects of mental fatigue and benefit-cost valuations

BACKGROUND

Current research investigating the relationship between mental fatigue and physical activity behaviors relies on laboratory-based, experimental studies which lack ecological validity.

OBJECTIVE

This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess feelings of mental fatigue and subjective evaluations (benefits and costs) as predictors of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity in the everyday lives of young adults.

METHODS

One hundred participants (n = 22 males, n = 78 females, Mage = 20.60 years, 70% meeting or exceeding physical activity guidelines) responded to digital survey prompts up to four times a day and wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days. Moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity in the 180-min time window following each survey prompt was recorded. Data from the 28 survey-moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity epochs were analyzed using multilevel mixed-effects linear modelling.

RESULTS

Higher levels of mental fatigue than one's average level were associated with engaging in fewer moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity minutes (p = .004) and lower benefit vs. cost scores (p = .001). Higher benefit vs. cost scores than one's average level were associated with engaging in more minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Results are the first to demonstrate outside the lab, that mental fatigue experienced in everyday life may amplify the perceived costs of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity, with both factors playing a potential role in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity decision-making. Future research may apply insights gained from this study in design and testing of real-time interventions promoting moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity.

Physical Activity Trajectories in Early Childhood: Investigating Personal, Environmental, and Participation Factors

INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE

To determine personal, environmental, and participation factors that predict children's physical activity (PA) trajectories from preschool through to school years.

METHODS

Two hundred seventy-nine children (4.5 ± 0.9 yr, 52% boys) were included in this study. Physical activity was collected via accelerometry at six different timepoints over 6.3 ± 0.6 yr. Time-stable variables were collected at baseline and included child's sex and ethnicity. Time-dependent variables were collected at six timepoints (age, years) and included household income (CAD), parental total PA, parental influence on PA, and parent-reported child's quality of life, child's sleep, and child's amount of weekend outdoor PA. Group-based trajectory modeling was applied to identify trajectories of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and total PA (TPA). Multivariable regression analysis identified personal, environmental, and participation factors associated with trajectory membership.

RESULTS

Three trajectories were identified for each of MVPA and TPA. Group 3 in MVPA and TPA expressed the most PA over time, with increased activity from timepoints 1 to 3, and then declining from timepoints 4 to 6. For the group 3 MVPA trajectory, male sex (β estimate, 3.437; P = 0.001) and quality of life (β estimate, 0.513; P < 0.001) were the only significant correlates for group membership. For the group 3 TPA trajectory, male sex (β estimate, 1.970; P = 0.035), greater household income (β estimate, 94.615; P < 0.001), and greater parental total PA (β estimate, 0.574; P = 0.023) increased the probability of belonging to this trajectory group.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest a need for interventions and public health campaigns to increase opportunities for PA engagement in girls starting in the early years. Policies and programs to address financial inequities, positive parental modeling, and improving quality of life are also warranted.

Is It Really Worth the Effort? Examining the Effects of Mental Fatigue on Physical Activity Effort Discounting

Physical activity (PA) guidelines are informed by epidemiological evidence but do not account for people's motivation for exerting physical effort. Previous research has shown that people are less motivated to engage in moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA when fatigued. In a two-study series, we investigated how intensity and duration affected people's willingness to engage in PA using an effort-discounting paradigm. A secondary purpose was to examine whether effort discounting was affected by mental fatigue. Both studies revealed a significant Intensity × Duration interaction demonstrating a reduced willingness to engage in PA of higher intensities across increasing duration levels. Study 1 demonstrated greater effort discounting for vigorous-intensity PA with increasing mental fatigue; however, this effect was not observed in Study 2. Findings provide novel insight toward people's motivation for engaging in PA based on the properties of the task, and some evidence suggesting feelings of fatigue may also influence motivation to exert physical effort.

Understanding Changes in Adolescent Physical Activity Behaviors and Cognitions Prior to and During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Despite accumulating evidence that has found significant negative declines in physical activity (PA) as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, little work has sought to understand how PA cognitions have changed during this period and in relation to behavior change during the pandemic. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the changes in adolescents' PA behaviors and cognitions associated with COVID-19 and prospective predictors of PA using the Multi-Process Action Control (M-PAC) framework. Adolescents were recruited from a large school board and a total of 588 participants (M_age = 15.87 ± 0.43 years, 60% female) completed data collection in both Fall 2019 and 2020—prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants completed self-reported measures of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), participation in organized activities, and variables derived from the M-PAC framework. Mixed effects models were computed to examine longitudinal changes in MVPA and cognitions as well as whether cognitions prior to COVID-19 predict MVPA during COVID-19. A generalized estimating equations model was computed to examine longitudinal changes for participation in organized activities. Findings indicated that MVPA (B = −56.41, p < 0.01) and participation in organized activities (OR = 0.33, p < 0.01) significantly decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Correspondingly, there were significant decreases in intentions (B = −0.34), identity (B = −0.19), and habit (B = −0.20), though there were increases in behavioral regulation (B = 0.18). No significant changes were found in affective attitudes, instrumental attitudes, perceived opportunity, and perceived capability. Among the baseline M-PAC cognitions, habit (B = 46.28) was the lone significant predictor of MVPA during COVID-19. Overall results suggest that adolescents' PA behaviors and cognitions were negatively impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, along with promising evidence that restrictions prompted adaptive utilization of behavioral regulation skills. Moreover, habit appears to play a salient role in predicting PA behaviors during uncertain times involving major life disruptions. These findings highlight the need to dedicate additional attention to PA promotion as COVID-19 moves toward an endemic phase, and that interventions targeting habit formation may be critical for helping adolescents better sustain healthy active lifestyles during major life changes.

Investigating the Effects of Mental Fatigue on Resistance Exercise Performance

Mental fatigue can impart negative effects on subsequent physical performance, although the mechanisms underlying these effects are not well understood. This study examined whether mental fatigue confers negative carryover effects on the performance of a set of biceps curls, while also investigating physiological and psychological mechanisms proposed to explain the predicted effect. A randomized, cross-over design was employed. On visit 1, participants (N = 10) performed a barbell biceps curl one-repetition maximum (1RM) test. On visits 2-3, participants performed 20 biceps curls at 50% of their 1RM, followed by their respective 10 min experimental manipulation (high vs. low cognitive exertion) and then a second set of biceps curls to exhaustion. Ratings of perceived exertion and electromyography of the biceps brachii, triceps brachii, upper trapezius, thoracic erector spinae and lumbar erector spinae were recorded during the physical task. The total number of repetitions completed was similar across the conditions. Results also failed to show between-condition differences for muscle activation and perceptions of exertion. Future research is needed to build an adequate knowledge base to determine whether there is an effect of mental fatigue on dynamic resistance-based task performance and, if so, identify the mechanisms explaining how and why.

Measurement properties of the Physical Literacy Assessment for Youth (PLAY) Tools

The Physical Literacy Assessment for Youth (PLAY) Tools are a suite of tools to assess an individual's physical literacy. The purpose of this study is to examine the psychometric properties of the PLAY Tools, including inter-rater reliability, internal consistency, validity and the associations between the tools. In this study, 218 children and youth (aged 8.4 to 13.7 years) and a parent/guardian completed the appropriate physical literacy assessments (i.e., PLAYbasic, PLAYfun, PLAYparent and PLAYself) and the Bruiniks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2). Inter-rater reliability for PLAYfun was excellent (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.94). The PLAYbasic, PLAYfun total, running and object control scores, and PLAYparent motor competence domain were higher in males than females, and PLAYfun locomotor skills were lower in males than females (p < 0.05). Age was positively correlated with PLAYbasic and PLAYfun (r = 0.14-0.32, p < 0.05). BOT-2 was positively correlated with PLAYfun and PLAYbasic (r = 0.19-0.59, p < 0.05). PLAYbasic is a significant predictor of PLAYfun (r² = 0.742, p < 0.001). PLAYfun, PLAYparent and PLAYself were moderately correlated with one another. PLAYfun, PLAYparent and PLAYself demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (α = 0.74-0.87, ω = 0.73-0.87). The PLAY Tools demonstrated moderate associations between one another, strong inter-rater reliability and good construct and convergent validity. Continued evaluation of these tools with other populations, such as adolescents, is necessary. Novelty: In school-age children, the PLAY Tools demonstrated strong inter-rater reliability, moderate associations with one another, acceptable internal consistency and good construct and convergent validity. The results suggest that that PLAY Tools are an acceptable method of evaluation for physical literacy in school-age children.

Effects of Peer Encouragement on Efficacy Perceptions and Physical Performance in Children

Social interactions are theorized to inform relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE), which, in turn, may influence self-efficacy and behavior. This study investigated the effects of peer encouragement on RISE, task self-efficacy, and physical performance. Children (N = 84) were assigned to dyads and randomized to provide peer encouragement to one another or not (control group). Participants completed two endurance handgrip trials, separated by a cognitively demanding task intended to induce mental fatigue and increase the salience of the peer encouragement manipulation. Participants in the experimental group exchanged words of encouragement prior to the second endurance trial, whereas those in the control group did not. The peer encouragement group reported higher RISE and showed increased performance across trials compared with controls. Providing peer encouragement prior to a challenging physical task was associated with more positive RISE perceptions and improved physical performance.

Physical Literacy, Physical Activity, and Health Indicators in School-Age Children

It has been theorized that physical literacy is associated with physical activity and health. The purpose of this study is to investigate the associations between physical literacy and health, and if this relationship is mediated by moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Two hundred and twenty-two children (113 girls, 10.7 ± 1.0 years old) participated in this cross-sectional study. A physical literacy composite score was computed from measures of PLAYfun, PLAYparent, and PLAYself. Physical activity was measured over seven days with accelerometers, expressed as MVPA (min/day). Health indicators included: body composition (percent body fat), aerobic fitness (treadmill time and 60s heart rate recovery), resting systolic blood pressure, and quality of life. Physical literacy was significantly associated (p < 0.001) with percent body fat (R² = 0.23), treadmill time (R² = 0.21), 60 s heart rate recovery (R² = 0.36), systolic blood pressure (R² = 0.11), and quality of life (R² = 0.11). The relationships between physical literacy and aerobic fitness, but not other health indicators, were directly mediated by MVPA. Higher physical literacy in children is associated with favorable health indicators, and the relationships between physical literacy and aerobic fitness were influenced by MVPA. Future work should examine these relationships longitudinally and determine if changes in physical literacy leads to changes in health.

Effects of Mental Fatigue on Exercise Intentions and Behavior

BACKGROUND

Exerting cognitive control results in mental fatigue, which is associated with impaired performance during physical endurance tasks. However, there has been little research on the effects of mental fatigue on people's perceptions or behaviors involving lifestyle or recreational exercise.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of mental fatigue on intended physical exertion and exercise performance reflective of current physical activity guidelines.

METHODS

Using a counterbalanced design, participants completed two 50-min experimental manipulations (high vs. low cognitive control exertion) before exercising at a self-selected intensity for 30 min. At visit 1, participants performed a graded exercise task to gain familiarity with a range of exercise intensities and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) while exercising. At visits 2 and 3, participants rated their intended RPE for the exercise session, performed the experimental manipulations, re-rated their intended RPE, and then completed 30-min of exercise on a cycle ergometer. Total work performed while exercising was recorded for each session.

RESULTS

Compared with the low cognitive control condition, the high cognitive control manipulation resulted in significantly greater mental fatigue (d = .73), significantly greater reductions in intended RPE (mean difference = -0.62), and significantly less total work (-12.7 kJ) performed during the exercise session.

CONCLUSIONS

Mental fatigue alters the amount of physical effort people are willing to invest in an exercise workout and follow through with those intentions by doing less work. These are the first results showing people may deliberately adjust their physical effort to cope with mental fatigue.

Methods and design for the ADAPT study: Application of integrateD Approaches to understanding Physical activity during the Transition to emerging adulthood

BACKGROUND

The overarching objective of the study is to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the salient factors predicting changes in physical activity (PA) during adolescents' transition into emerging adulthood. Using the Multi-Process Action Control model as our guiding framework, we will examine how implicit and explicit psychological processes along with regulatory practices impact PA change during this major life transition. Additionally, we will use a real-time data capture method called Ecological Momentary Assessment to further investigate how environmental and contextual factors, and momentary psychosocial influences effect PA patterns across this dynamic life stage.

METHODS

The ADAPT study is a 4-year project comprised of two interrelated studies. Study I is a large prospective cohort study that will invite all grade 11 students across one large school board (a total of seven secondary schools) to participate by completing an online questionnaire. Using a cluster randomization approach, a subset of students from each school will be invited to participate in Study II, whereby participants will wear an accelerometer and complete Ecological Momentary Assessments 5 times a day over a 7-day study period. For both studies, following baseline assessments, there will be three annual follow-up assessments approximately 12 months apart.

DISCUSSION

The current study represents one of the largest longitudinal cohort studies examining PA and its determinants and associated consequences among adolescents transitioning out of high school into emerging adulthood. Findings from this study will provide a much more in-depth understanding of how and why changes in PA behaviour occur across this first major life transition.

Dormancy dampens the microbial distance-decay relationship

Much of Earth's biodiversity has the capacity to engage in dormancy, a reversible state of reduced metabolic activity. By increasing resilience to unfavourable conditions, dormancy leads to the accumulation of 'seed banks'. These reservoirs of genetic and phenotypic diversity should diminish the strength of environmental filtering and increase rates of dispersal. Although prevalent among single-celled organisms, evidence that dormancy influences patterns of microbial biogeography is lacking. We constructed geographical and environmental distance-decay relationships (DDRs) for the total (DNA) and active (RNA) portions of bacterial communities in a regional-scale 16S rRNA survey of forested ponds in Indiana, USA. As predicted, total communities harboured greater diversity and exhibited weaker DDRs than active communities. These observations were robust to random resampling and different community metrics. To evaluate the processes underlying the biogeographic patterns, we developed a platform of mechanistic models that used the geographical coordinates and environmental characteristics of our study system. Based on more than 10⁶ simulations, our models approximated the empirical DDRs when there was strong environmental filtering along with the presence of long-lived seed banks. By contrast, the inclusion of dispersal generally decreased model performance. Together, our findings support recent theoretical predictions that seed banks can influence the biogeographic patterns of microbial communities. This article is part of the theme issue 'Conceptual challenges in microbial community ecology'.

Physical Activity and Trajectories of Cardiovascular Health Indicators During Early Childhood

OBJECTIVES

Cardiovascular disease prevention should begin in childhood. However, the influence of physical activity on cardiovascular health in early childhood is unknown. Our purpose in this study was to determine the effect of physical activity on trajectories of cardiovascular health indicators during early childhood.

METHODS

This prospective, observational cohort study (Health Outcomes and Physical Activity in Preschoolers) enrolled 418 3- to 5-year-olds with annual assessments for 3 years. Total physical activity (TPA) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were measured over 7 days via accelerometry. Cardiovascular health indicators included cardiovascular fitness (exercise time on a maximal treadmill test [treadmill time] and 1-minute heart rate recovery), resting arterial stiffness (whole-body pulse wave velocity and carotid β stiffness index), and seated systolic blood pressure. Data were analyzed by using linear mixed-effects modeling; effects are reported as unstandardized estimates (Est).

RESULTS

There were main effects of TPA and MVPA on treadmill time (Est = 0.004 [P = .005] and 0.008 [P = .001], respectively) and heart rate recovery (Est = 0.05 [P < .001] and 0.08 [P < .001], respectively). There was a main effect of TPA on pulse wave velocity (Est = -0.001; P = .02) and an MVPA × time interaction (Est = -0.002; P = .01). For carotid β stiffness index, the effect of a TPA × time interaction was not significant (Est = -0.002; P = .051); however, there was a significant MVPA × time interaction (Est = -0.003; P = .03). MVPA was associated with a slower rate of change in systolic blood pressure for girls (Est = 0.06; P = .009).

CONCLUSIONS

Children who engage in higher levels of physical activity during early childhood have better cardiovascular health indicators, with more intense physical activity (ie, MVPA) attenuating the stiffening of arteries.

Can behavioral strategies increase physical activity and influence depressive symptoms and quality of life among children with epilepsy? Results of a randomized controlled trial

PURPOSE

This study examined whether increasing physical activity (PA) through 6 months of behavioral counseling positively influenced depressive symptoms and quality of life (QoL) over 12 months among children with epilepsy (CWE).

METHODS

A longitudinal multisite randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted with 8-14-year-old children with active epilepsy. Participants wore a pedometer to track daily PA and completed 3 measures at 4 time points to examine depressive symptoms and QoL. Stratified by site and activity level, participants were randomized to an intervention or control group. The 6-month intervention included 11 behavioral counseling sessions targeting self-regulation of PA. To assess the associations among PA, depression scores, and QoL, primary analysis involved mixed-effects models.

RESULTS

We recruited 122 CWE, of whom 115 were randomized (M_age = 11 ± 2; 50% female) and included in the analysis. The intervention did not increase PA in the treatment compared with the control group. No differences were found between groups over time during the subsequent 6 months, where PA decreased among all participants. Results did not show differences between the groups and over time for measures of depressive symptoms and QoL.

SIGNIFICANCE

The intervention did not improve or sustain PA levels over 12 months. Both groups demonstrated declines in PA over one year, but there were no changes in depression scores or QoL. As most participants were already nearly reaching the Canadian average of step counts of children their age, with a baseline daily step count of over 9000, there may be a challenge for further increasing PA over a longer period.

Effects of Cognitive Control Exertion and Motor Coordination on Task Self-Efficacy and Muscular Endurance Performance in Children

Emerging research shows a strong connection between brain areas governing cognition and motor behavior. Indeed, research based on the Strength Model has shown that people perform worse on physical tasks following the exertion of high (compared to low) cognitive control which has been attributed to the dysregulation of neurophysiological processes within areas of the brain responsible for cognition. Yet, research investigating the negative aftereffects of high cognitive control (HCC) exertion on task performance has not considered the potential role of areas governing motor behavior. The present study investigated the effects of HCC exertion on task self-efficacy and exercise performance in children. A secondary purpose was to investigate whether motor coordination influences the change in exercise performance differently following low versus HCC exertion. Participants (N = 70) performed two isometric handgrip endurance trials separated by a Stroop task, which was either congruent low cognitive control (LCC) or incongruent (HCC). Motor coordination was assessed prior to the first endurance trial. Task self-efficacy for performing the second endurance trial was assessed following the Stroop task. Participants in the HCC condition reported lower task self-efficacy and showed a reduction in endurance exercise performance. Task self-efficacy mediated the cognitive control-performance relationship. Participants scoring lower on motor coordination showed the greatest declines in exercise performance following HCC, whereas motor coordination did not affect performance following LCC. The results of this study provide evidence that task self-efficacy and exercise performance are also negatively affected in children following HCC, and interestingly, these effects are exacerbated among those scoring lower in motor coordination. We recommend future research investigate motor coordination as a potential mechanism for the reductions in both cognitive and physical task performance following the prolonged exertion of HCC.

Effects of Mental Fatigue on Physical Endurance Performance and Muscle Activation Are Attenuated by Monetary Incentives

Physical performance is impaired following cognitive control exertion. Incentives can ameliorate adverse carryover effects of cognitive control exertion but have not been investigated for physical endurance. This study examined the effect of monetary incentives on physical performance and muscle activation following exposure to a mentally fatiguing, cognitive control task. Participants (N = 82) performed two isometric endurance handgrip trials separated by a 12-min cognitive control manipulation using a 2 (high cognitive control [HCC]/low cognitive control [LCC]) × 2 (incentive/no incentive) design. Mental fatigue was significantly higher in the HCC conditions. Performance decreased in the HCC/no incentive condition but was unaffected in the HCC/incentive condition, which did not differ from the low cognitive control conditions. Electromyography data revealed increased muscle activation in the HCC/no incentive condition, which was also attenuated in the HCC/incentive condition. Findings show that incentives counteract the negative effects of HCC on physical endurance and alter central drive to motor units.

Cognitive control exertion leads to reductions in peak power output and [Formula: see text] as well as increased perceived exertion on a graded exercise test to exhaustion

We investigated effects of a brief (10.5 min) cognitively demanding task on graded exercise test performance. Untrained, university students (N = 15) completed two graded exercise tests in counterbalanced, randomised order. One test was preceded by restful viewing of a documentary video (control); the other by a stop-signal task. Cardiorespiratory functions and perceived exertion were monitored during exercise. Peak power output (W) was lower following the stop-signal task (M = 240.03, SD = 53.37) compared to control (M = 246.03, SD = 52.60), P = 0.002, η_P² = 0.493, as was [Formula: see text] (P = 0.042, Cohen's d = 0.55). Perceived exertion was significantly higher at 50% (d = 0.77) and 75% (d = 0.83) of iso-time following the cognitive task (Ps ≤ 0.01). Results are consistent with research showing negative carryover effects of cognitively demanding tasks on whole-body endurance performance. Results also support the psychobiological model of exercise as performance of the cognitive task did not affect perceived exertion when exercise task demands were lower, but lead to greater perceived exertion and earlier withdrawal of effort at higher levels of exercise task demand. Findings have implications for understanding psychological determinants of exercise performance and conditions that may lead to underestimation of [Formula: see text].

Using Consensus as a Criterion for Groupness

The purpose of the study was to examine how the exclusion of teams failing to meet varying statistical criteria for consensus on cohesiveness influences the magnitude of the cohesion– team success relationship. The index of agreement was calculated for 78 teams (N = 1,000 athletes) that had completed the Group Environment Questionnaire. Results showed that excluding teams because they fail to satisfy various criteria for consensus leads to changes in the magnitude of the cohesion–team success relationship. The magnitude of the relationship between team success and the individual attractions to group-task manifestation of cohesion showed progressive decreases as criteria required to demonstrate consensus became more stringent. Conversely, the magnitude of the relationship between team success and the group integration–task and group integration–social manifestations of cohesion showed progressive increases as criteria required to demonstrate consensus became more stringent. The results are discussed in terms of their relationship to group dynamics theory and practice.

Efficacy for Interdependent Role Functions

The present study reports on the initial development of an instrument to measure role efficacy for interdependent functions and test its conceptual distinctiveness from other forms of efficacy within interdependent teams. Intercollegiate basketball players completed a role efficacy questionnaire on which they reported their confidence in capabilities to perform interdependent role functions within their team’s offensive and defensive systems. They also completed measures of task self-efficacy and collective efficacy. Consistent with predictions, role efficacy and task self-efficacy were moderately related. Role efficacy was also distinct from collective efficacy insofar as the latter perception showed evidence of a shared group perception, whereas role efficacy showed individual-level variance only. Starting players reported greater role efficacy than nonstarters, yet collective efficacy and task self-efficacy were the same regardless of starting status. Together, results supported the initial validity and conceptual distinctiveness of role efficacy within the interdependent sport team environment.

Leadership Behaviors and Multidimensional Role Ambiguity Perceptions in Team Sports

The relationships between leadership behaviors and athletes’ perceptions of role ambiguity were investigated within interdependent team sports. Early to midway through their respective seasons, the degree to which coaches engaged in training and instruction and positive feedback behaviors was investigated in relation to athletes’ subsequent perceptions of multi-dimensional role ambiguity. For nonstarters, coaches’ training and instruction accounted for significant variation in offensive and defensive role consequences ambiguity as well as offensive role evaluation ambiguity. However, for starters, neither of the leadership dimensions assessed in this study could explain significant variance in any of the role ambiguity dimensions. Results are discussed in terms of theory development and further research investigating possible antecedents of multidimensional role ambiguity.

Role Efficacy, Role Clarity, and Role Performance Effectiveness

The main purpose of the study was to examine role clarity as a moderator of the role efficacy-role performance relationship. A secondary issue was to investigate the influence of role clarity on role efficacy and role performance. On the basis of Bandura’s theorizing, it was hypothesized that role efficacy should be a good predictor of role performance effectiveness only under conditions of high role clarity. Individuals reporting higher role clarity were expected to be more efficacious and perform better than those with lower role clarity. Consistent with hypotheses, role clarity moderated the prospective relationship between role efficacy and role performance effectiveness in the predicted direction for offensive role functions. Individuals who reported higher role clarity also reported higher role efficacy and performed better than those with lower role clarity. Results are discussed in the context of self-efficacy theory. Further prospective examinations, as well as experimental designs, are recommended.

Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict Within Interdependent Teams

The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of role ambiguity and role conflict within interdependent sport teams from a multidimensional perspective. Role ambiguity and role conflict corresponding to offensive and defensive functions were assessed in relation to role-related efficacy beliefs as well as starting status. Results of a principal components analysis supported the multidimensionality of role ambiguity but indicated that role conflict was unidimensional with regard to offensive and defensive role functions. Consistent with self-efficacy theory (discussed by Bandura in 1997), role ambiguity was negatively associated with role-related efficacy beliefs. Furthermore, consistent with theorizing by Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal in 1964, a negative relationship between role conflict and role-related efficacy was mediated by role ambiguity. Nonstarters reported greater role ambiguity than starters; however, no differences were observed with regard to role conflict. The findings have implications for the future study of role ambiguity as a multidimensional construct and the relationship between role ambiguity and performance.

Collective Efficacy, Group Goals, and Group Performance of a Muscular Endurance Task

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationships among collective efficacy, group goals, and group performance using an interdependent muscular endurance task in a controlled laboratory setting. Thirty-seven male (n = 14) and female (n = 23) triads performed two trials of maximum muscular endurance, completing measures of collective efficacy and group goals between trials. Results showed a high degree of correlation ( r range = .73 -.92) between collective efficacy, group goals, and group performance. Hierarchical linear regression analyses revealed that collective efficacy predicted significant variance in Trial 2 performance after controlling for performance on Trial 1. Group goals mediated the relationship between collective efficacy and group performance on Trial 2. Implications for theory and group performance in naturalistic settings such as sport teams are discussed.

An Exploratory Investigation of the Relationship between Proxy Efficacy, Self-efficacy and Exercise Attendance

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between perceptions of self-efficacy, proxy efficacy, and exercise class attendance of participants involved in a 10-week structured group fitness program. At week 3, 127 females completed measures of self-efficacy and proxy efficacy and their class attendance was monitored for the subsequent four weeks. Self-efficacy was assessed through measures of exercise, scheduling, and barrier self-efficacy. Proxy efficacy was assessed through a measure of fitness instructor efficacy defined as participants’ confidence in their fitness instructors’ communication, teaching, and motivating capabilities. Results revealed positive correlations between self-efficacy variables and proxy efficacy. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that among those who were classified as exercise initiates ( n = 33), self-efficacy and proxy efficacy accounted for 34 percent of the variance in exercise class attendance with the latter variable explaining a unique 12 percent. Consistent with theorizing, these preliminary findings indicate that for instructor-led, group physical activities such as aerobics classes, proxy efficacy perceptions are related to self-efficacy and may also be an important predictor of exercise behavior.

Using self-reported and objective measures of self-control to predict exercise and academic behaviors among first-year university students

Thirty students (mean age = 18 ± 0.5 years) completed self-report (Self-Control Scale) and objective (isometric handgrip squeeze performance) measures of self-control, provided their exercise and academic (study/schoolwork) plans for the next month, and then logged these behaviors over the subsequent 4-week period. Trait self-control predicted exercise and academic behavior. Handgrip squeeze performance predicted academic behavior and adherence to academic plans. Further, regression analysis revealed that trait self-control and handgrip performance explained significant variance in academic behavior. These findings provide a new understanding of how different self-control measures can be used to predict first-year students’ participation in, and adherence to, exercise and academic behaviors concurrently.

Effects of autonomous motivational priming on motivation and affective responses towards high-intensity interval training

This study examined the effect of autonomous motivational priming on motivation, attitudes and intentions towards high-intensity interval training (HIT). Participants (N = 42) performed a graded exercise test to determine their peak aerobic power (WPEAK). At a subsequent testing session, participants were randomised to complete either an autonomous or neutral motivational priming task followed by a 10 × 1 HIT exercise protocol, alternating 1-min bouts of hard (70% WPEAK) and light (12.5% WPEAK) exercises for 20 min. Participants primed with autonomous motivation reported greater enjoyment, P = .009, ηp(2) = .16, and perceived competence, P = .005, ηp(2) = .18, post-exercise compared to those in the neutral priming condition. Participants in the autonomous motivational priming condition also reported more positive attitudes, P = .014, ηp(2) = .14, towards HIT; however, there was no difference between the conditions for task motivation during HIT or intentions, P = .53, ηp(2) = .01, to engage in HIT. These findings highlight autonomous motivational priming as a method of enhancing affective and motivational experiences regarding HIT.

Self-Control Strength Depletion Reduces Self-Efficacy and Impairs Exercise Performance

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of task self-efficacy as a psychological factor involved in the relationship between self-control depletion and physical endurance. Participants (N = 37) completed two isometric handgrip endurance trials, separated by a Stroop task, which was either congruent (control) or incongruent (causing depletion). Task self-efficacy for the second endurance trial was measured following the Stroop task. Participants in the depletion condition reported lower task self-efficacy and showed a greater reduction in performance on the second endurance trial when compared with controls. Task self-efficacy also mediated the relationship between self-control depletion and endurance performance. The results of this study provide evidence that task self-efficacy is negatively affected following self-control depletion. We recommend that task self-efficacy be further investigated as a psychological factor accounting for the negative change in self-control performance of physical endurance and sport tasks following self-control strength depletion.

Intentions and trait self-control predict fruit and vegetable consumption during the transition to first-year university

OBJECTIVE

To examine the independent and combined effects of Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) variables and trait self-control (TSC) in the prediction of fruit and vegetable consumption (FVC) among first-year university students.

PARTICIPANTS

Seventy-six first-year undergraduate university students.

METHODS

In their first week of class (September 2011), participants completed baseline measures of TSC, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions about their FVC. One week later, students completed a 7-day food recall, from which daily FVC was calculated.

RESULTS

Baseline attitudes and perceived behavioral control predicted intentions (adjR(2) = .58). Intentions and TSC predicted FVC (adjR(2) = .24).

CONCLUSIONS

The TPB may be a useful framework on which to base a FVC intervention for first-year undergraduate students; however, focusing solely on increasing positive intentions to consume FVC will not necessarily translate into FVC behavior, as other personal- and environmental-level variables may play a role.

Self-control training leads to enhanced cardiovascular exercise performance

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of two weeks of self-control strength training on maximum cardiovascular exercise performance. Forty-one participants completed a cognitive self-control depletion task (Stroop task) followed by a maximal graded cycling test and were randomized to training (maximal endurance contractions of spring handgrip trainers, twice daily) or no-treatment control groups. At follow-up (2 weeks), half of each group completed either a time-matched or trial-matched Stroop task followed by another maximal graded cycling test. Results showed a significant 2-way (training X time) interaction (P < 0.001), and a trend for the 3-way (training X time X cognitive task) interaction (P = 0.07). Decomposition of the interactions revealed that across sessions cycling performance increased in both training groups, did not change in the trial-matched cognitive task control group, and declined in the time-matched control group. We conclude that isometric handgrip training leads to self-control strength adaptations that enhance maximal cardiovascular exercise performance or tolerance of exercise at maximal levels of effort.

Effect of exercise on cigarette cravings and ad libitum smoking following concurrent stressors

The health consequences of smoking are well documented, yet quit rates are modest. While exercise has supported decreased cravings and withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstinent smokers, it has yet to be applied when smokers are experiencing concurrent stressors. This study examined the effect of an acute bout of moderate intensity exercise on cravings (primary outcome) and ad libitum smoking (secondary outcome) following concurrent stressors (i.e., temporary abstinence and environmental manipulation-Stroop cognitive task+cue-elicited smoking stimuli). Twenty-five smokers (>10cig/day; Mean age=37.4years) were randomized into either exercise (n=12) or passive sitting conditions. A repeated measure (RM) ANOVA showed that psychological withdrawal symptoms (a measure of distress) were significantly exacerbated after temporary abstinence and then again after the environmental manipulation for all participants (p<.0001, η(2)=.50). Furthermore, a treatment by time RM ANOVA revealed decreases in psychological withdrawal symptoms for only the exercise condition (p<.001, η(2)=.42). A treatment by time RM ANOVA also revealed craving reductions for only the exercise condition (p<.0001, η(2)=.82). Exercise had no effect on ad libitum smoking. This is the first study to use a lab-based scenario with high ecological validity to show that an acute bout of exercise can reduce cravings following concurrent stressors. Future work is now needed where momentary assessment is used in people's natural environment to examine changes in cigarette cravings following acute bouts of exercise.

The effects of aerobic- versus strength-training on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns

This experiment compared the effects of aerobic-training (AT) versus strength-training (ST) on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns. Theory-based correlates of body image change were also examined. Participants were 46 women (M age=21.5 years), randomly assigned to an 8-week AT or ST intervention consisting of supervised exercise 3 days/week. Multidimensional measures of body image were administered pre- and post-intervention, along with measures of physical fitness, perceived fitness, and exercise self-efficacy. Women in the AT condition reported greater reductions in social physique anxiety (p=.001) and tended to report greater improvements in appearance evaluation (p=.06) than women in the ST condition. Changes in perceived fatness, perceived aerobic endurance and aerobic self-efficacy were significantly correlated with body image change (ps<.003). Results provide direction for prescribing exercise to improve body image and advancing theory to account for the effects of exercise.

Sources of self-efficacy and coach/instructor behaviors underlying relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE) in recreational youth sport

Interpersonal feedback from coaches may be instrumental in the formation of children's self-efficacy to learn or perform sport skills. We report on two studies that explored perceived sources of self-efficacy and relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE) in one-on-one interviews with sport camp participants (N = 61; ages 7-12) and focus groups with recreational league participants (N = 28; ages 8-12). Participants' responses indicated that prior experiences and socially constructed interactions contributed to the development of self-efficacy and RISE beliefs. Results support Bandura's (1997) theorizing that self-efficacy is developed through processing of experiential feedback as well as Lent and Lopez's (2002) tripartite theory proposing interpersonal feedback from influential others contributes to children's RISE and self-efficacy.

Step count targets corresponding to new physical activity guidelines for the early years

PURPOSE

New physical activity guidelines recommend that children age 3–4 yr should accumulate at least 180 min of physical activity at any intensity spread throughout the day, including progression toward at least 60 min of energetic play by 5 yr of age. Step count targets corresponding to these recommendations will help practitioners and researchers monitor physical activity.

METHODS

One hundred thirty-three preschoolers were instructed to wear accelerometers for seven consecutive days. Activity and step count data were recorded in 3-s epochs. Step count targets equivalent to physical activity recommendations were derived using prediction equations from regression analyses. Receiver operating curve analyses were conducted to compare the sensitivity and specificity of the derived thresholds as well as a range of other targets.

RESULTS

The daily step count target derived for 180 min of physical activity of any intensity was 6013 +/- 88, whereas the target for 180 min of physical activity of any intensity including at least 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was 6191 +/- 103. The smallest discrepancy between days meeting physical activity guidelines and step count targets was found with a 6000-step-per-day target. Receiver operating curves confirmed a balanced sensitivity and specificity of this target.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of our data, we suggest that a new step count target of 6000 steps per day should be used to determine whether 3- to 5-yr-old children are meeting physical activity recommendations.

The effects of depleted self-control strength on skill-based task performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of depleted self-control strength on skill-based sports task performance. Sixty-two participants completed the following: a baseline dart-tossing task (20 tosses), with measures of accuracy, reaction time, and myoelectrical activity of the arms taken throughout; a self-control depletion (experimental) or a nondepletion (control) manipulation; and a second round of dart tossing. As hypothesized, participants in the experimental condition had poorer mean accuracy at Round 2 than control condition participants, and a significant decline in accuracy from Round 1 to Round 2. Experimental condition participants also demonstrated poorer consistency in accuracy compared with control condition participants at Round 2 and a significant deterioration in consistency from Round 1 to Round 2. In addition, consistency in reaction time improved significantly for the control group but not for the experimental group. The results of this study provide evidence that ego depletion effects occur in the performance of a skill-based sports task.

Understanding Self-Controlled Motor Learning Protocols through the Self-Determination Theory

The purpose of the present review was to provide a theoretical understanding of the learning advantages underlying a self-controlled practice context through the tenets of the self-determination theory (SDT). Three micro-theories within the macro-theory of SDT (Basic psychological needs theory, Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and Organismic Integration Theory) are used as a framework for examining the current self-controlled motor learning literature. A review of 26 peer-reviewed, empirical studies from the motor learning and medical training literature revealed an important limitation of the self-controlled research in motor learning: that the effects of motivation have been assumed rather than quantified. The SDT offers a basis from which to include measurements of motivation into explanations of changes in behavior. This review suggests that a self-controlled practice context can facilitate such factors as feelings of autonomy and competence of the learner, thereby supporting the psychological needs of the learner, leading to long term changes to behavior. Possible tools for the measurement of motivation and regulation in future studies are discussed. The SDT not only allows for a theoretical reinterpretation of the extant motor learning research supporting self-control as a learning variable, but also can help to better understand and measure the changes occurring between the practice environment and the observed behavioral outcomes.

Changes in traditional chronic disease risk factors over time and their relationship with leisure-time physical activity in people living with spinal cord injury

This study examined whether levels of chronic disease risk factors change over time, and whether leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) can explain any of the variation in those risk factors that change, in a sample of community-dwelling people living with spinal cord injury (SCI) in or near Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. LTPA was measured using the Physical Activity Recall Assessment for People with SCI at baseline (n = 76 adults with chronic (≥1 year) paraplegia or tetraplegia), at 6 months (n = 71) and at 18 months (n = 63). Body mass index, waist circumference at the lowest rib (WClowest rib) and iliac crest (WCiliac crest), fat mass, blood pressure, and biochemical data were collected at all 3 time points. Women’s BMI was higher at baseline (least square means (LSM) = 26.2 ± SE = 1.56 kg·m–2, p = 0.0004) and 6 months (25.9 ± 1.6, p = 0.0024) than at 18 months (22.1 ± 1.72). Men’s WClowest ribincreased from baseline (92.1 ± 1.87 cm) to 18 months (93.6 ± 1.87, p = 0.0253). Women who were active vs. inactive at baseline had a lower BMI at 6 months (23.1 ± 2.91 vs. 29.7 ± 2.52, p = 0.0957) and WCiliac crestat 6 months (82.8 ± 6.59 vs. 97.7 ± 5.10, p = 0.0818). Women who were active vs. inactive at 6 months had a lower WCiliac crestat 18 months (73.4 ± 14.3 vs. 102.5 ± 6.41, p = 0.0723). There was little change in traditional risk factors over 18 months. Future studies should extend beyond 18 months in a larger sample, and explore traditional vs. novel risk factors and onset of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in the SCI population.

Predictors of leisure time physical activity among people with spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND

Most studies of physical activity predictors in people with disability have lacked a guiding theoretical framework. Identifying theory-based predictors is important for developing activity-enhancing strategies.

PURPOSE

To use the World Health Organization's International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) framework to identify predictors of leisure time physical activity among people with spinal cord injury (SCI).

METHODS

Six hundred ninety-five persons with SCI (M age=47; 76% male) completed measures of Body Functions and Structures, Activities and Participation, Personal Factors, and Environmental Factors at baseline and 6-months. Activity was measured at 6 and 18 months. Logistic and linear regression models were computed to prospectively examine predictors of activity status and activity minutes per day.

RESULTS

Models explained 19%-25% of variance in leisure time physical activity. Activities and Participation and Personal Factors were the strongest, most consistent predictors.

CONCLUSIONS

The ICF framework shows promise for identifying and conceptualizing predictors of leisure time physical activity in persons with disability.

The health outcomes and physical activity in preschoolers (HOPP) study: rationale and design

BACKGROUND

The early years are the period of growth for which we know the least about the impact of physical activity. In contrast, we know that more than 90 % of school-aged Canadian children, for example, are not meeting physical activity recommendations. Such an activity crisis is a major contributor to recent trends in childhood obesity, to which preschoolers are not immune. The World Health Organization estimated that more than 42 million children under the age of 5 years were overweight world-wide in 2010. If an activity crisis exists during the preschool years, we should also be concerned about its broader impact on health. Unfortunately, the relationship between physical activity and health during the early years is poorly understood. The goal of the Health Outcomes and Physical activity in Preschoolers (HOPP) study is to describe how the prevalence and patterns of physical activity in preschoolers are associated with indices of health.

METHODS

The HOPP study is a prospective cohort study. We aim to recruit 400 3- to 5-year-old children (equal number of boys and girls) and test them once per year for 3 years. Each annual assessment involves 2 laboratory visits and 7 consecutive days of physical activity monitoring with protocols developed in our pilot work. At visit 1, we assess body composition, aerobic fitness, short-term muscle power, motor skills, and have the parents complete a series of questionnaires related to their child's physical activity, health-related quality of life and general behaviour. Over 7 consecutive days each child wears an accelerometer on his/her waist to objectively monitor physical activity. The accelerometer is programmed to record movement every 3 s, which is needed to accurately capture the intensity of physical activity. At visit 2, we assess vascular structure and function using ultrasound. To assess the associations between physical activity and health outcomes, our primary analysis will involve mixed-effects models for longitudinal analyses.

DISCUSSION

The HOPP study addresses a significant gap in health research and our findings will hold the potential to shape public health policy for active living during the early years.

Gender, perceived competence and the enjoyment of physical education in children: a longitudinal examination

BACKGROUND

The current study examined associations between gender, perceived athletic competence, and enjoyment of physical education (PE) class over time in a cohort of children enrolled in grade four (ages 9 or 10) at baseline (n = 2262).

METHODS

We assessed each student 5 times over a period of 2 years. We used mixed effects modeling to examine change over time in enjoyment of PE.

RESULTS

Enjoyment of PE declined among girls but remained constant among boys. Higher levels of perceived competence were associated with higher PE enjoyment. A 3-way interaction between gender, competence, and time revealed that PE enjoyment was lowest and declined most markedly among girls with low perceived athletic competence. Among boys with low competence, enjoyment remained at a consistently low level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that lower perceived athletic competence is associated with low enjoyment of PE, and, among girls, with declining enjoyment. Findings suggest that interventions in a PE context that target perceived competence should be considered in future work.

Effects of a print-mediated intervention on physical activity during transition to the first year of university

Transition to the first year of university is linked to steep declines in moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a targeted, theory-driven, print-based intervention on MVPA during transition to university. Volunteer participants from five Canadian universities (n=255) completed measures of MVPA at the start of their first semester at university and were randomly assigned to conditions receiving a first-year-student physical activity and action-planning brochure, Canada's Physical Activity Guide (CPAG), or a no-intervention control group. Six weeks later, a follow-up measure of MVPA was obtained as well as retrospective accounts of physical activity action-planning strategies and self-efficacy for scheduling physical activity. At the follow-up, students who received the targeted first-year student physical activity brochure reported significantly higher levels of MVPA compared to controls (p<.05) and a trend towards higher MVPA compared to the CPAG group (p=.06). However, there were no differences between groups on action planning or self-efficacy. A theory-driven and targeted print media intervention can offer low-cost and broad-reaching effects that may help students stay more active or curb declining levels of MVPA that occur during transition to university.

Promoting self-determined motivation for exercise in cardiac rehabilitation: the role of autonomy support

OBJECTIVE

Using self-determination theory (SDT), we examined relationships between cardiac rehabilitation (CR) participants' perceived autonomy support, motivation for exercise, and exercise behavior.

RESEARCH METHOD/DESIGN

Male CR outpatients (N = 53; M age = 62.83 +/- 10.78 years). The design was correlational (cross-sectional and prospective), examining relationships between perceived autonomy support and motivation for exercise at Week 4 of CR participation as well as motivation and CR attendance and other indicators of exercise behavior (frequency, duration, total exercise time) at a 1-week follow-up, 10 weeks later.

RESULTS

Perceived autonomy support was correlated with self-determined motivation, r(53) = .32, p < .05. Self-determined motivation predicted total exercise volume at follow-up, r(53) = .34, p < .05, as well as length of exercise session duration (R(2) = .27; beta = .52, p < .001).

CONCLUSION

Results support SDT and the potential for autonomy support from interventionists to affect self-determined motivation and exercise behavior of participants involved in CR.