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Pols TWH, Puchner T, Korkmaz HI, Vos M, Soeters MR, de Vries CJM. Lithocholic acid controls adaptive immune responses by inhibition of Th1 activation through the Vitamin D receptor. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0176715. [PMID: 28493883 PMCID: PMC5426628 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bile acids are established signaling molecules next to their role in the intestinal emulsification and uptake of lipids. We here aimed to identify a potential interaction between bile acids and CD4+ Th cells, which are central in adaptive immune responses. We screened distinct bile acid species for their potency to affect T cell function. Primary human and mouse CD4+ Th cells as well as Jurkat T cells were used to gain insight into the mechanism underlying these effects. We found that unconjugated lithocholic acid (LCA) impedes Th1 activation as measured by i) decreased production of the Th1 cytokines IFNγ and TNFαα, ii) decreased expression of the Th1 genes T-box protein expressed in T cells (T-bet), Stat-1 and Stat4, and iii) decreased STAT1α/β phosphorylation. Importantly, we observed that LCA impairs Th1 activation at physiological relevant concentrations. Profiling of MAPK signaling pathways in Jurkat T cells uncovered an inhibition of ERK-1/2 phosphorylation upon LCA exposure, which could provide an explanation for the impaired Th1 activation. LCA induces these effects via Vitamin D receptor (VDR) signaling since VDR RNA silencing abrogated these effects. These data reveal for the first time that LCA controls adaptive immunity via inhibition of Th1 activation. Many factors influence LCA levels, including bile acid-based drugs and gut microbiota. Our data may suggest that these factors also impact on adaptive immunity via a yet unrecognized LCA-Th cell axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs W. H. Pols
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Teresa Puchner
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - H. Inci Korkmaz
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mariska Vos
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten R. Soeters
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Carlie J. M. de Vries
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Macchiarulo A, Gioiello A, Thomas C, Pols TWH, Nuti R, Ferrari C, Giacchè N, De Franco F, Pruzanski M, Auwerx J, Schoonjans K, Pellicciari R. Probing the Binding Site of Bile Acids in TGR5. ACS Med Chem Lett 2013; 4:1158-62. [PMID: 24900622 DOI: 10.1021/ml400247k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
TGR5 is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) mediating cellular responses to bile acids (BAs). Although some efforts have been devoted to generate homology models of TGR5 and draw structure-activity relationships of BAs, none of these studies has hitherto described how BAs bind to TGR5. Here, we present an integrated computational, chemical, and biological approach that has been instrumental to determine the binding mode of BAs to TGR5. As a result, key residues have been identified that are involved in mediating the binding of BAs to the receptor. Collectively, these results provide new hints to design potent and selective TGR5 agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Macchiarulo
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Antimo Gioiello
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Charles Thomas
- Laboratory
of Integrative and Systems Physiology (LISP), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Thijs W. H. Pols
- Laboratory
of Integrative and Systems Physiology (LISP), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Roberto Nuti
- TES Pharma S.r.l., via Palmiro
Togliatti 20, 06073 Corciano (Perugia), Italy
| | - Cristina Ferrari
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Nicola Giacchè
- TES Pharma S.r.l., via Palmiro
Togliatti 20, 06073 Corciano (Perugia), Italy
| | - Francesca De Franco
- TES Pharma S.r.l., via Palmiro
Togliatti 20, 06073 Corciano (Perugia), Italy
| | - Mark Pruzanski
- Intercept Pharmaceuticals, 18 Desbrosses
Street, New York, New York 10013, United States
| | - Johan Auwerx
- Laboratory
of Integrative and Systems Physiology (LISP), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kristina Schoonjans
- Laboratory
of Integrative and Systems Physiology (LISP), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Roberto Pellicciari
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
- TES Pharma S.r.l., via Palmiro
Togliatti 20, 06073 Corciano (Perugia), Italy
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Harach T, Pols TWH, Nomura M, Maida A, Watanabe M, Auwerx J, Schoonjans K. TGR5 potentiates GLP-1 secretion in response to anionic exchange resins. Sci Rep 2012; 2:430. [PMID: 22666533 PMCID: PMC3362799 DOI: 10.1038/srep00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Anionic exchange resins are bona fide cholesterol-lowering agents with glycemia lowering actions in diabetic patients. Potentiation of intestinal GLP-1 secretion has been proposed to contribute to the glycemia lowering effect of these non-systemic drugs. Here, we show that resin exposure enhances GLP-1 secretion and improves glycemic control in diet-induced animal models of “diabesity”, effects which are critically dependent on TGR5, a G protein-coupled receptor that is activated by bile acids. We identified the colon as a major source of GLP-1 secretion after resin treatment. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the boost in GLP-1 release by resins is due to both enhanced TGR5-dependent production of the precursor transcript of GLP-1 as well as to the local enrichment of TGR5 agonists in the colon. Thus, TGR5 represents an essential component in the pathway mediating the enhanced GLP-1 release in response to anionic exchange resins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taoufiq Harach
- Laboratory of Integrative and Systems Physiology-LISP, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Pols TWH, Nomura M, Harach T, Lo Sasso G, Oosterveer MH, Thomas C, Rizzo G, Gioiello A, Adorini L, Pellicciari R, Auwerx J, Schoonjans K. TGR5 activation inhibits atherosclerosis by reducing macrophage inflammation and lipid loading. Cell Metab 2011; 14:747-57. [PMID: 22152303 PMCID: PMC3627293 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2011.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 413] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Revised: 09/06/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The G protein-coupled receptor TGR5 has been identified as an important component of the bile acid signaling network, and its activation has been linked to enhanced energy expenditure and improved glycemic control. Here, we demonstrate that activation of TGR5 in macrophages by 6α-ethyl-23(S)-methylcholic acid (6-EMCA, INT-777), a semisynthetic BA, inhibits proinflammatory cytokine production, an effect mediated by TGR5-induced cAMP signaling and subsequent NF-κB inhibition. TGR5 activation attenuated atherosclerosis in Ldlr(-/-)Tgr5(+/+) mice but not in Ldlr(-/-)Tgr5(-/-) double-knockout mice. The inhibition of lesion formation was associated with decreased intraplaque inflammation and less plaque macrophage content. Furthermore, Ldlr(-/-) animals transplanted with Tgr5(-/-) bone marrow did not show an inhibition of atherosclerosis by INT-777, further establishing an important role of leukocytes in INT-777-mediated inhibition of vascular lesion formation. Taken together, these data attribute a significant immune modulating function to TGR5 activation in the prevention of atherosclerosis, an important facet of the metabolic syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs W H Pols
- Laboratory of Integrative and Systems Physiology, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Pols TWH, Bonta PI, Pires NMM, Otermin I, Vos M, de Vries MR, van Eijk M, Roelofsen J, Havekes LM, Quax PHA, van Kuilenburg ABP, de Waard V, Pannekoek H, de Vries CJM. 6-mercaptopurine inhibits atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein e*3-leiden transgenic mice through atheroprotective actions on monocytes and macrophages. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010; 30:1591-7. [PMID: 20413732 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.110.205674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE 6-Mercaptopurine (6-MP), the active metabolite of the immunosuppressive prodrug azathioprine, is commonly used in autoimmune diseases and transplant recipients, who are at high risk for cardiovascular disease. Here, we aimed to gain knowledge on the action of 6-MP in atherosclerosis, with a focus on monocytes and macrophages. METHODS AND RESULTS We demonstrate that 6-MP induces apoptosis of THP-1 monocytes, involving decreased expression of the intrinsic antiapoptotic factors B-cell CLL/Lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl2-like 1 (Bcl-x(L)). In addition, we show that 6-MP decreases expression of the monocyte adhesion molecules platelet endothelial adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) and very late antigen-4 (VLA-4) and inhibits monocyte adhesion. Screening of a panel of cytokines relevant to atherosclerosis revealed that 6-MP robustly inhibits monocyte chemoattractant chemokine-1 (MCP-1) expression in macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Finally, local delivery of 6-MP to the vessel wall, using a drug-eluting cuff, attenuates atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic apolipoprotein E*3-Leiden transgenic mice (P<0.05). In line with our in vitro data, this inhibition of atherosclerosis by 6-MP was accompanied with decreased lesion monocyte chemoattractant chemokine-1 levels, enhanced vascular apoptosis, and reduced macrophage content. CONCLUSIONS We report novel, previously unrecognized atheroprotective actions of 6-MP in cultured monocytes/macrophages and in a mouse model of atherosclerosis, providing further insight into the effect of the immunosuppressive drug azathioprine in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs W H Pols
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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7
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The nuclear orphan receptors Nur77 (NR4A1), Nurr1 (NR4A2) and NOR-1 (NR4A3) are known to be involved in T-cell apoptosis, brain development, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Here, we review our current understanding of the NR4A nuclear receptors in processes that are relevant to vascular disease. RECENT FINDINGS NR4A nuclear receptors have recently been described to play a role in metabolism by regulating gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, energy expenditure, and adipogenesis. The function of NR4A nuclear receptors has also extensively been investigated in cells crucial in vascular lesion formation, such as macrophages, endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. SUMMARY The involvement of NR4A nuclear receptors in both metabolism and in processes in the vessel wall supports a substantial role for NR4A nuclear receptors in the development of vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs W H Pols
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Abstract
Nur77, Nurr1, and NOR-1 form the NR4A subfamily of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily of transcription factors and have been described in the regulation of differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, and survival of many different cell types. The expression of NR4A nuclear receptors in vascular pathologies has only recently been revealed, after which studies on the functional involvement of NR4A receptors in vascular disease were initiated. This review summarizes our current view on involvement of Nur77, Nurr1, and NOR-1 in atherosclerotic vascular disease and discusses NR4A function in vascular response to injury.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- Atherosclerosis/metabolism
- Atherosclerosis/pathology
- Cell Differentiation
- Cell Proliferation
- Cell Survival
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Graft Occlusion, Vascular/metabolism
- Graft Occlusion, Vascular/pathology
- Humans
- Membrane Transport Proteins/metabolism
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/blood supply
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/metabolism
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/metabolism
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 1
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 2
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, Steroid/metabolism
- Transcription Factors/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter I Bonta
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Pires NMM, Pols TWH, de Vries MR, van Tiel CM, Bonta PI, Vos M, Arkenbout EK, Pannekoek H, Jukema JW, Quax PHA, de Vries CJM. Activation of nuclear receptor Nur77 by 6-mercaptopurine protects against neointima formation. Circulation 2007; 115:493-500. [PMID: 17242285 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.106.626838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Restenosis is a common complication after percutaneous coronary interventions and is characterized by excessive proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs). We have shown that the nuclear receptor Nur77 protects against SMC-rich lesion formation, and it has been demonstrated that 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) enhances Nur77 activity. We hypothesized that 6-MP inhibits neointima formation through activation of Nur77. METHODS AND RESULTS It is demonstrated that 6-MP increases Nur77 activity in cultured SMCs, which results in reduced [3H]thymidine incorporation, whereas Nur77 small interfering RNA knockdown partially restores DNA synthesis. Furthermore, we studied the effect of 6-MP in a murine model of cuff-induced neointima formation. Nur77 mRNA is upregulated in cuffed arteries, with optimal expression after 6 hours and elevated expression up to 7 days after vascular injury. Local perivascular delivery of 6-MP with a drug-eluting cuff significantly inhibits neointima formation in wild-type mice. Locally applied 6-MP does not affect inflammatory responses or apoptosis but inhibits expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen and enhances protein levels of the cell-cycle inhibitor p27(Kip1) in the vessel wall. An even stronger inhibition of neointima formation in response to local 6-MP delivery was observed in transgenic mice that overexpressed Nur77. In contrast, 6-MP does not alter lesion formation in transgenic mice that overexpress a dominant-negative variant of Nur77 in arterial SMCs, which provides evidence for the involvement of Nur77-like factors. CONCLUSIONS Enhancement of the activity of Nur77 by 6-MP protects against excessive SMC proliferation and SMC-rich neointima formation. We propose that activation of the nuclear receptor Nur77 is a rational approach to treating in-stent restenosis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antimetabolites, Antineoplastic/pharmacology
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Coronary Restenosis/drug therapy
- Coronary Restenosis/metabolism
- Coronary Restenosis/pathology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Drug Implants
- Femoral Artery/pathology
- Humans
- Male
- Mercaptopurine/pharmacology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Mice, Transgenic
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/pathology
- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 1
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Small Interfering
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/genetics
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, Steroid/genetics
- Receptors, Steroid/metabolism
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Tunica Intima/drug effects
- Tunica Intima/pathology
- Umbilical Arteries/cytology
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno M M Pires
- Gaubius Laboratory, TNO-Quality of Life, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Bonta PI, van Tiel CM, Vos M, Pols TWH, van Thienen JV, Ferreira V, Arkenbout EK, Seppen J, Spek CA, van der Poll T, Pannekoek H, de Vries CJM. Nuclear receptors Nur77, Nurr1, and NOR-1 expressed in atherosclerotic lesion macrophages reduce lipid loading and inflammatory responses. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26:2288-94. [PMID: 16873729 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000238346.84458.5d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease in which macrophage activation and lipid loading play a crucial role. In this study, we investigated expression and function of the NR4A nuclear receptor family, comprising Nur77 (NR4A1, TR3), Nurr1 (NR4A2), and NOR-1 (NR4A3) in human macrophages. METHODS AND RESULTS Nur77, Nurr1, and NOR-1 are expressed in early and advanced human atherosclerotic lesion macrophages primarily in areas of plaque activation/progression as detected by in situ-hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Protein expression localizes to the nucleus. Primary and THP-1 macrophages transiently express NR4A-factors in response to lipopolysaccharide and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Lentiviral overexpression of Nur77, Nurr1, or NOR-1 reduces expression and production of interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-6 proinflammatory cytokines and IL-8, macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha and -1beta and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 chemokines. In addition, NR4A-factors reduce oxidized-low-density lipoprotein uptake, consistent with downregulation of scavenger receptor-A, CD36, and CD11b macrophage marker genes. Knockdown of Nur77 or NOR-1 with gene-specific lentiviral short-hairpin RNAs resulted in enhanced cytokine and chemokine synthesis, increased lipid loading, and augmented CD11b expression, demonstrating endogenous NR4A-factors to inhibit macrophage activation, foam-cell formation, and differentiation. CONCLUSIONS NR4A-factors are expressed in human atherosclerotic lesion macrophages and reduce human macrophage lipid loading and inflammatory responses, providing further evidence for a protective role of NR4A-factors in atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter I Bonta
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Overwijk WW, de Visser KE, Tirion FH, de Jong LA, Pols TWH, van der Velden YU, van den Boorn JG, Keller AM, Buurman WA, Theoret MR, Blom B, Restifo NP, Kruisbeek AM, Kastelein RA, Haanen JBAG. Immunological and antitumor effects of IL-23 as a cancer vaccine adjuvant. J Immunol 2006; 176:5213-22. [PMID: 16621986 PMCID: PMC2242845 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.9.5213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The promising, but modest, clinical results of many human cancer vaccines indicate a need for vaccine adjuvants that can increase both the quantity and the quality of vaccine-induced, tumor-specific T cells. In this study we tested the immunological and antitumor effects of the proinflammatory cytokine, IL-23, in gp100 peptide vaccine therapy of established murine melanoma. Neither systemic nor local IL-23 alone had any impact on tumor growth or tumor-specific T cell numbers. Upon specific vaccination, however, systemic IL-23 greatly increased the relative and absolute numbers of vaccine-induced CD8(+) T cells and enhanced their effector function at the tumor site. Although IL-23 specifically increased IFN-gamma production by tumor-specific T cells, IFN-gamma itself was not a primary mediator of the vaccine adjuvant effect. The IL-23-induced antitumor effect and accompanying reversible weight loss were both partially mediated by TNF-alpha. In contrast, local expression of IL-23 at the tumor site maintained antitumor activity in the absence of weight loss. Under these conditions, it was also clear that enhanced effector function of vaccine-induced CD8(+) T cells, rather than increased T cell number, is a primary mechanism underlying the antitumor effect of IL-23. Collectively, these results suggest that IL-23 is a potent vaccine adjuvant for the induction of therapeutic, tumor-specific CD8(+) T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem W Overwijk
- Division of Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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