1
|
Crawford SA, Groegler J, Dang M, Michel C, Powell RL, Hohenstein AC, Reyes K, Haskins K, Wiles TA, Delong T. Hybrid insulin peptide isomers spontaneously form in pancreatic beta-cells from an aspartic anhydride intermediate. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105264. [PMID: 37734557 PMCID: PMC10590738 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Hybrid insulin peptides (HIPs) form in beta-cells when insulin fragments link to other peptides through a peptide bond. HIPs contain nongenomic amino acid sequences and have been identified as targets for autoreactive T cells in type 1 diabetes. A subgroup of HIPs, in which N-terminal amine groups of various peptides are linked to aspartic acid residues of insulin C-peptide, was detected through mass spectrometry in pancreatic islets. Here, we investigate a novel mechanism that leads to the formation of these HIPs in human and murine islets. Our research herein shows that these HIPs form spontaneously in beta-cells through a mechanism involving an aspartic anhydride intermediate. This mechanism leads to the formation of a regular HIP containing a standard peptide bond as well as a HIP-isomer containing an isopeptide bond by linkage to the carboxylic acid side chain of the aspartic acid residue. We used mass spectrometric analyses to confirm the presence of both HIP isomers in islets, thereby validating the occurrence of this novel reaction mechanism in beta-cells. The spontaneous formation of new peptide bonds within cells may lead to the development of neoepitopes that contribute to the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes as well as other autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha A Crawford
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Jason Groegler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Mylinh Dang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Cole Michel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Roger L Powell
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Anita C Hohenstein
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA; Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Kaitlin Reyes
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Kathryn Haskins
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Timothy A Wiles
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Thomas Delong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Crawford SA, Wiles TA, Wenzlau JM, Powell RL, Barbour G, Dang M, Groegler J, Barra JM, Burnette KS, Hohenstein AC, Baker RL, Tse HM, Haskins K, Delong T. Cathepsin D Drives the Formation of Hybrid Insulin Peptides Relevant to the Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes. Diabetes 2022; 71:2793-2803. [PMID: 36041196 PMCID: PMC9750942 DOI: 10.2337/db22-0303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Hybrid insulin peptides (HIPs) form in pancreatic β-cells through the formation of peptide bonds between proinsulin fragments and other peptides. HIPs have been identified in pancreatic islets by mass spectrometry and are targeted by CD4 T cells in patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) as well as by pathogenic CD4 T-cell clones in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. The mechanism of HIP formation is currently poorly understood; however, it is well established that proteases can drive the formation of new peptide bonds in a side reaction during peptide bond hydrolysis. Here, we used a proteomic strategy on enriched insulin granules and identified cathepsin D (CatD) as the primary protease driving the specific formation of HIPs targeted by disease-relevant CD4 T cells in T1D. We also established that NOD islets deficient in cathepsin L (CatL), another protease implicated in the formation of disease-relevant HIPs, contain elevated levels of HIPs, indicating a role for CatL in the proteolytic degradation of HIPs. In summary, our data suggest that CatD may be a therapeutic target in efforts to prevent or slow the autoimmune destruction of β-cells mediated by HIP-reactive CD4 T cells in T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha A Crawford
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Timothy A Wiles
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Janet M Wenzlau
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Roger L Powell
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Gene Barbour
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Mylinh Dang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Jason Groegler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Jessie M Barra
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - KaLia S Burnette
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Anita C Hohenstein
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Rocky L Baker
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Hubert M Tse
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Kathryn Haskins
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Thomas Delong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wiles TA, Hohenstein A, Landry LG, Dang M, Powell R, Guyer P, James EA, Nakayama M, Haskins K, Delong T, Baker RL. Characterization of Human CD4 T Cells Specific for a C-Peptide/C-Peptide Hybrid Insulin Peptide. Front Immunol 2021; 12:668680. [PMID: 34113344 PMCID: PMC8185328 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.668680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hybrid Insulin Peptides (HIPs), which consist of insulin fragments fused to other peptides from β-cell secretory granule proteins, are CD4 T cell autoantigens in type 1 diabetes (T1D). We have studied HIPs and HIP-reactive CD4 T cells extensively in the context of the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of autoimmune diabetes and have shown that CD4 T cells specific for HIPs are major contributors to disease pathogenesis. Additionally, in the human context, HIP-reactive CD4 T cells can be found in the islets and peripheral blood of T1D patients. Here, we performed an in-depth characterization of the CD4 T cell response to a C-peptide/C-peptide HIP (HIP11) in human T1D. We identified the TCR expressed by the previously-reported HIP11-reactive CD4 T cell clone E2, which was isolated from the peripheral blood of a T1D patient, and determined that it recognizes HIP11 in the context of HLA-DQ2. We also identified a HIP11-specific TCR directly in the islets of a T1D donor and demonstrated that this TCR recognizes a different minimal epitope of HIP11 presented by HLA-DQ8. We generated and tested an HLA-DQ2 tetramer loaded with HIP11 that will enable direct ex vivo interrogation of CD4 T cell responses to HIP11 in human patients and control subjects. Using mass spectrometric analysis, we confirmed that HIP11 is present in human islets. This work represents an important step in characterizing the role of CD4 T cell responses to HIPs in human T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy A. Wiles
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Anita Hohenstein
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Aurora, CO, United States,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Laurie G. Landry
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Mylinh Dang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Roger Powell
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Perrin Guyer
- Department of Translational Research, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Eddie A. James
- Department of Translational Research, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Maki Nakayama
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States,Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Kathryn Haskins
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Thomas Delong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Rocky L. Baker
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States,*Correspondence: Rocky L. Baker,
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
Mounting evidence implicates hybrid insulin peptides (HIPs) as important autoantigens in the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D). These fusion peptides formed between insulin and other pancreatic beta cell-derived peptides contain non-genomically encoded amino acid sequences, making them plausible targets for autoreactive T cells in T1D. HIPs are detectable by mass spectrometry in human and murine islets and are targeted by diabetes-inducing T cells in non-obese diabetic mice as well as by T cells isolated from the residual pancreatic islets of human organ donors with T1D. The discovery of HIPs comes with numerous new challenges, as well as opportunities to study the pathogenesis of T1D. Here we review the original discovery of HIPs and describe recent studies investigating the role of HIP-reactive T cells in the development of diabetes. We also discuss potential mechanisms that may be responsible for the generation of HIPs in beta cells and describe challenges that need to be addressed in the field of mass spectrometry to enable the discovery of new HIPs. The identification of these potentially disease-driving antigens in T1D is of key interest to the field as it may provide new tools to predict, prevent and potentially reverse the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T A Wiles
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - T Delong
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz, Aurora, CO, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Baker RL, Jamison BL, Wiles TA, Lindsay RS, Barbour G, Bradley B, Delong T, Friedman RS, Nakayama M, Haskins K. CD4 T Cells Reactive to Hybrid Insulin Peptides Are Indicators of Disease Activity in the NOD Mouse. Diabetes 2018; 67:1836-1846. [PMID: 29976617 PMCID: PMC6110316 DOI: 10.2337/db18-0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We recently established that hybrid insulin peptides (HIPs), formed in islet β-cells by fusion of insulin C-peptide fragments to peptides of chromogranin A or islet amyloid polypeptide, are ligands for diabetogenic CD4 T-cell clones. The goal of this study was to investigate whether HIP-reactive T cells were indicative of ongoing autoimmunity. MHC class II tetramers were used to investigate the presence, phenotype, and function of HIP-reactive and insulin-reactive T cells in NOD mice. Insulin-reactive T cells encounter their antigen early in disease, but they express FoxP3 and therefore may contribute to immune regulation. In contrast, HIP-reactive T cells are proinflammatory and highly diabetogenic in an adoptive transfer model. Because the frequency of antigen-experienced HIP-reactive T cells increases over progression of disease, they may serve as biomarkers of autoimmune diabetes.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Autoantigens/chemistry
- Autoantigens/genetics
- Autoantigens/metabolism
- Autoimmune Diseases/immunology
- Autoimmune Diseases/metabolism
- Autoimmune Diseases/pathology
- Autoimmune Diseases/physiopathology
- Autoimmunity
- Biomarkers/blood
- C-Peptide/chemistry
- C-Peptide/genetics
- C-Peptide/metabolism
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- Cells, Cultured
- Chromogranin A/chemistry
- Chromogranin A/genetics
- Chromogranin A/metabolism
- Clone Cells
- Crosses, Genetic
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/immunology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/metabolism
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/pathology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/physiopathology
- Disease Progression
- Female
- Islet Amyloid Polypeptide/chemistry
- Islet Amyloid Polypeptide/genetics
- Islet Amyloid Polypeptide/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Mice, Inbred NOD
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, SCID
- Peptide Fragments/chemistry
- Peptide Fragments/genetics
- Peptide Fragments/metabolism
- Recombination, Genetic
- Specific Pathogen-Free Organisms
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rocky L Baker
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| | - Braxton L Jamison
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| | - Timothy A Wiles
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| | - Robin S Lindsay
- Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO
| | - Gene Barbour
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| | - Brenda Bradley
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| | - Thomas Delong
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| | - Rachel S Friedman
- Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO
| | - Maki Nakayama
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| | - Kathryn Haskins
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Delong T, Wiles TA, Baker RL, Bradley B, Barbour G, Reisdorph R, Armstrong M, Powell RL, Reisdorph N, Kumar N, Elso CM, DeNicola M, Bottino R, Powers AC, Harlan DM, Kent SC, Mannering SI, Haskins K. Pathogenic CD4 T cells in type 1 diabetes recognize epitopes formed by peptide fusion. Science 2016; 351:711-4. [PMID: 26912858 DOI: 10.1126/science.aad2791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 350] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
T cell-mediated destruction of insulin-producing β cells in the pancreas causes type 1 diabetes (T1D). CD4 T cell responses play a central role in β cell destruction, but the identity of the epitopes recognized by pathogenic CD4 T cells remains unknown. We found that diabetes-inducing CD4 T cell clones isolated from nonobese diabetic mice recognize epitopes formed by covalent cross-linking of proinsulin peptides to other peptides present in β cell secretory granules. These hybrid insulin peptides (HIPs) are antigenic for CD4 T cells and can be detected by mass spectrometry in β cells. CD4 T cells from the residual pancreatic islets of two organ donors who had T1D also recognize HIPs. Autoreactive T cells targeting hybrid peptides may explain how immune tolerance is broken in T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Delong
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | - Timothy A Wiles
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Rocky L Baker
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Brenda Bradley
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Gene Barbour
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Richard Reisdorph
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Michael Armstrong
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Roger L Powell
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Nichole Reisdorph
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Nitesh Kumar
- Immunology and Diabetes Unit, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, 9 Princes Street, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia
| | - Colleen M Elso
- Immunology and Diabetes Unit, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, 9 Princes Street, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia
| | - Megan DeNicola
- Department of Medicine, Diabetes Division, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Rita Bottino
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Alvin C Powers
- Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, and Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA. VA Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - David M Harlan
- Department of Medicine, Diabetes Division, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Sally C Kent
- Department of Medicine, Diabetes Division, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Stuart I Mannering
- Immunology and Diabetes Unit, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, 9 Princes Street, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia. University of Melbourne, Department of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia
| | - Kathryn Haskins
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Baker RL, Bradley B, Wiles TA, Lindsay RS, Barbour G, Delong T, Friedman RS, Haskins K. Cutting Edge: Nonobese Diabetic Mice Deficient in Chromogranin A Are Protected from Autoimmune Diabetes. J Immunol 2015; 196:39-43. [PMID: 26608914 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1501190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
T cells reactive to β cell Ags are critical players in the development of autoimmune type 1 diabetes. Using a panel of diabetogenic CD4 T cell clones derived from the NOD mouse, we recently identified the β cell secretory granule protein, chromogranin A (ChgA), as a new autoantigen in type 1 diabetes. CD4 T cells reactive to ChgA are pathogenic and rapidly transfer diabetes into young NOD recipients. We report in this article that NOD.ChgA(-/-) mice do not develop diabetes and show little evidence of autoimmunity in the pancreatic islets. Using tetramer analysis, we demonstrate that ChgA-reactive T cells are present in these mice but remain naive. In contrast, in NOD.ChgA(+/+) mice, a majority of the ChgA-reactive T cells are Ag experienced. Our results suggest that the presence of ChgA and subsequent activation of ChgA-reactive T cells are essential for the initiation and development of autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rocky L Baker
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| | - Brenda Bradley
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| | - Timothy A Wiles
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| | - Robin S Lindsay
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| | - Gene Barbour
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| | - Thomas Delong
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| | - Rachel S Friedman
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| | - Kathryn Haskins
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045; and Department of Biomedical Research, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206
| |
Collapse
|