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Sartorius A, Cahoon M, Corbetta D, Grau-Roma L, Johnson MF, Sandoval Barron E, Smallman-Raynor M, Swift BMC, Yon L, Young S, Bennett M. Relationships between soil and badger elemental concentrations across a heterogeneously contaminated landscape. Sci Total Environ 2023; 869:161684. [PMID: 36690105 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the links between environmental and wildlife elemental concentrations is key to help assess ecosystem functions and the potential effects of legacy pollutants. In this study, livers from 448 European badgers (Meles meles) collected across the English Midlands were used to investigate the relationship between elemental concentrations in topsoils and wildlife. Mean soil sample concentrations within 2 km of each badger, determined using data from the British Geological Survey's 'Geochemical Baseline Survey of the Environment', were compared to badger liver elemental concentrations, focusing primarily on Ag, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, K, Mn, Pb, Se, Zn. Generally, the badgers appeared to have elemental concentrations comparable with those published for other related animals, though Cu concentrations tended to be lower than expected. While there was no relationship between soil and badger liver concentrations for most biologically essential elements, biologically non-essential elements, specifically Pb, Cd, As, and Ag, were positively correlated between soil and badger livers. Lead and Cd, the elements with the strongest relationships between soils and badger livers, were primarily elevated in badgers collected in Derbyshire, a county with a millennia-long history of Pb mining and significant Pb and Cd soil pollution. Cadmium concentrations in badgers were also, on average, almost nine times higher than the local soil concentrations, likely due to Cd biomagnification in earthworms, a dietary staple of badgers. While badgers are good models for studying associations between soil and wildlife elemental concentrations, due to their diet, burrowing behaviours, and site fidelity, all flora and fauna local to human-modified environments could be exposed to and impacted by legacy pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Sartorius
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK.
| | - Molly Cahoon
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | - Davide Corbetta
- Farm Pathology and Companion Animal Pathology Departments, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, Veterinary Pathology Service, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | - Llorenç Grau-Roma
- Farm Pathology and Companion Animal Pathology Departments, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, Veterinary Pathology Service, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK; Institute of Animal Pathology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Elsa Sandoval Barron
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | | | - Benjamin M C Swift
- The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Lisa Yon
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | - Scott Young
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | - Malcolm Bennett
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
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McGill K, Fitzsimons T, Duignan A, Corner L, Lesellier S, Gormley E. Seroconversion against antigen MPB83 in badgers (Meles meles) vaccinated with multiple doses of BCG strain Sofia. Res Vet Sci 2022; 149:119-124. [PMID: 35777280 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Serological diagnosis of Mycobacterium bovis infection in badgers (Meles meles) has relied primarily on antibody recognition of MPB83, a sero-dominant antigen of M. bovis. Most vaccine studies in badgers to date have used the Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) Danish strain, a low producer of MPB83. Due to a supply shortage of the BCG Danish strain, the BCG Sofia SL222 strain has been considered as an alternative vaccine. This strain is a high producer of MPB83 raising the possibility that vaccinated animals will test sero-positive in diagnostic assays that use this antigen. In this study we vaccinated a group of eleven badgers with BCG Sofia SL222 by injection via the intramuscular route and a booster vaccine dose was similarly delivered at 12 weeks and 64 weeks. Primary vaccination did not result in measured detection of antibodies against MPB83 in any badger during the first twelve weeks using serum or whole blood tested by the Dual Path Platform (DPP) VetTB, however, MPB83 antibodies were detected in a semi-quantitative ELISA assay. Following delivery of booster BCG at 12 weeks and 64 weeks, antibody responses against MPB83 were recorded in badgers using whole blood and serum on DPP VetTB and by ELISA. At all time points, vaccination was also associated with the in vitro production of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) following stimulation of lymphocytes with bovine and avian tuberculin (PPD) but not with MPB83 or M. bovis specific antigen CFP-10. The results indicate that serological diagnosis of tuberculosis using tests that target MPB83 may be compromised if badgers are repeatedly vaccinated with BCG Sofia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevina McGill
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Tara Fitzsimons
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Anthony Duignan
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Leigh Corner
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Sandrine Lesellier
- Laboratoire de la Rage et de la Faune Sauvage de Nancy (LRFSN), Technopole Agricole et Vétérinaire, 54220, Malzéville, France.
| | - Eamonn Gormley
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland.
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Scott-Baumann J, Pizzey R, Beckmann M, Villarreal-Ramos B, King J, Hopkins B, Rooke D, Hewinson G, Mur LAJ. Metabotyping the Welsh population of badgers based on thoracic fluid. Metabolomics 2022; 18:30. [PMID: 35524831 PMCID: PMC9079023 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-022-01888-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The European badger (Meles meles) is a known wildlife reservoir for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and a better understanding of the epidemiology of bTB in this wildlife species is required for disease control in both wild and farmed animals. Flow infusion electrospray-high-resolution mass spectrometry (FIE-HRMS) may potentially identify novel metabolite biomarkers based on which new, rapid, and sensitive point of care tests for bTB infection could be developed. OBJECTIVES In this foundational study, we engaged on assessing the baseline metabolomic variation in the non-bTB infected badger population ("metabotyping") across Wales. METHODS FIE-HRMS was applied on thoracic fluid samples obtained by post-mortem of bTB negative badgers (n = 285) which were part of the Welsh Government 'All Wales Badger Found Dead' study. RESULTS Using principal component analysis and partial least squares-discriminant analyses, the major sources of variation were linked to sex, and to a much lesser extent age, as indicated by tooth wear. Within the female population, variation was seen between lactating and non-lactating individuals. No significant variation linked to the presence of bite wounds, obvious lymphatic lesions or geographical region of origin was observed. CONCLUSION Future metabolomic work when making comparisons between bTB infected and non-infected badger samples will only need be sex-matched and could focus on males only, to avoid lactation bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Scott-Baumann
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, Ceredigion, UK
| | - Richard Pizzey
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, Ceredigion, UK
| | - Manfred Beckmann
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, Ceredigion, UK
| | - Bernardo Villarreal-Ramos
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, Ceredigion, UK
- Centre of Excellence for Bovine Tuberculosis, Aberystwyth University, Ceredigion, SY23 3AR, UK
- TB Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, Surrey, UK
| | - Jonathan King
- Wales Veterinary Science Centre, Y Buarth, Aberystwyth, SY23 1ND, Ceredigion, UK
| | - Beverley Hopkins
- Wales Veterinary Science Centre, Y Buarth, Aberystwyth, SY23 1ND, Ceredigion, UK
| | | | - Glyn Hewinson
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, Ceredigion, UK
- Centre of Excellence for Bovine Tuberculosis, Aberystwyth University, Ceredigion, SY23 3AR, UK
| | - Luis A J Mur
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, Ceredigion, UK.
- , B2.03 Edward Llwyd, Penglais, Aberystwyth, SY23 3FL, UK.
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O'Hagan MJH, McCormick CM, Collins SF, McBride KR, Menzies FD. Are major roads effective barriers for badger (Meles meles) movements? Res Vet Sci 2021; 138:49-52. [PMID: 34098415 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
As part of a bovine tuberculosis (bTB) control related Test and Vaccinate or Remove (TVR) badger research study in Northern Ireland, a project was launched evaluating whether badgers cross major roads (in this case the A1 dual carriageway linking Belfast/Newry/Dublin). This road formed the western boundary of the TVR study area and it was chosen to discourage badger movements in and out of the area. This was important in order to ensure that the badger study population was as stable as possible and also to get a better understanding of the risk of any spill over of bTB infection from the study area to the buffer area. Five badgers trapped close to the A1 were fitted with a Global Positioning System (GPS) collar in October 2017, which were set to record the badger location every 20 min between 19.20 and 03.00 h during a maximum of 84 days. Based on 4313 location points recorded, only 2 (0.05%) location points were located on the western side of the A1. Although this was a small sample, it can be concluded that generally badgers avoid crossing dual carriageways which is supported by evidence from other studies. This finding is important for informing on development of future badger intervention areas where major roads could be considered as strong borders. Furthermore, it adds to the body of knowledge in trying to understand drivers and barriers for badger dispersal behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J H O'Hagan
- Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs, Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Upper Newtownards Road, Belfast BT4 3SB, Northern Ireland, UK. Maria.O'
| | - C M McCormick
- Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs, Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Upper Newtownards Road, Belfast BT4 3SB, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - S F Collins
- Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs, TVR Field Implementation Unit, Glenree House, Springhill Road, Newry BT35 6EF, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - K R McBride
- Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs, Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Upper Newtownards Road, Belfast BT4 3SB, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - F D Menzies
- Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs, Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Upper Newtownards Road, Belfast BT4 3SB, Northern Ireland, UK
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O'Hagan MJH, Gordon AW, McCormick CM, Collins SF, Trimble NA, McGeown CF, McHugh GE, McBride KR, Menzies FD. Effect of selective removal of badgers ( Meles meles) on ranging behaviour during a 'Test and Vaccinate or Remove' intervention in Northern Ireland. Epidemiol Infect 2021; 149:e125. [PMID: 33958017 DOI: 10.1017/S0950268821001096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) as a wildlife host has complicated the management of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in cattle. Badger ranging behaviour has previously been found to be altered by culling of badgers and has been suggested to increase the transmission of bTB either among badgers or between badgers and cattle. In 2014, a five-year bTB intervention research project in a 100 km2 area in Northern Ireland was initiated involving selective removal of dual path platform (DPP) VetTB (immunoassay) test positive badgers and vaccination followed by release of DPP test negative badgers (‘Test and Vaccinate or Remove’). Home range sizes, based on position data obtained from global positioning system collared badgers, were compared between the first year of the project, where no DPP test positive badgers were removed, and follow-up years 2–4 when DPP test positive badgers were removed. A total of 105 individual badgers were followed over 21 200 collar tracking nights. Using multivariable analyses, neither annual nor monthly home ranges differed significantly in size between years, suggesting they were not significantly altered by the bTB intervention that was applied in the study area.
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Lederman Z, Magalhães-Sant’Ana M, Voo TC. Stamping Out Animal Culling: From Anthropocentrism to One Health Ethics. J Agric Environ Ethics 2021; 34:27. [PMID: 34483696 PMCID: PMC8403469 DOI: 10.1007/s10806-021-09868-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Culling is used in traditional public health policies to control animal populations. These policies aim primarily to protect human interests but often fail to provide scientific evidence of effectiveness. In this article, we defend the need to move from a strictly anthropocentric approach to disease control towards a One Health ethics, using culling practices as an example. We focus on the recent badger culls in the UK, claiming that, based on data provided by the English Government, these culls may be unjustified, all thing considered. We highlight the relevance of ethical reasoning rooted in One Health for this discussion, and make several suggestions including a moratorium on culling until data are provided to support the effectiveness of culling; to conduct a randomized trial to compare proactive culling with alternative methods; to apply deliberative democratic methods to assess public opinion towards the culls, and to find in Brexit an opportunity for aiming for more effective control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Manuel Magalhães-Sant’Ana
- CIISA—Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Teck Chuan Voo
- Centre for Biomedical Ethics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Block MD11, Clinical Research Centre, #02-03, 10 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117597 Singapore
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Campbell EL, Menzies FD, Byrne AW, Porter S, McCormick CM, McBride KR, Scantlebury DM, Reid N. Grazing cattle exposure to neighbouring herds and badgers in relation to bovine tuberculosis risk. Res Vet Sci 2020; 133:297-303. [PMID: 33069429 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) can be spread between and among cattle and wildlife hosts e.g. European badger (Meles meles). The majority of cattle in the UK and Ireland are grazed during the summer, potentially exposing them to Mycobacterium bovis. 18 farms were surveyed (39% dairy, 61% beef; fields n = 697) for one grazing season (May-November 2016, n = 148,461 field days) to quantify the co-occurrence of cattle with badger setts and latrines and adjacency to neighbouring cattle herds. 3% (n = 24) of the fields had a badger sett or latrine recorded, dairy cattle were significantly more likely to co-occur with badger setts and latrines than beef cattle. Most farms (89%) grazed cattle adjacent to a neighbouring herd, which accounted for 18% of the grazing season. Potential exposure to neighbouring herds did not differ between production systems but did vary between life stages. A significant positive association between the proportion of time cattle spent grazing fields with setts present and the historic 1-, 3- and 5- year bTB status (p = 0.007, p = 0.013 and p = 0.013 respectively) was found. However, when cattle were grazed in fields with latrines, a significant negative association was found between the proportion of time cattle spent grazing fields with latrines present and the historic 3- and 5- year bTB status (p = 0.033 and p = 0.012 respectively). Historic bTB status and percentage of days spent beside a neighbouring herd was unrelated. Idiosyncrasies at farm-level and between risk factors indicated that individual farm assessments would be beneficial to understand potential exposure risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma L Campbell
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Belfast, UK; School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security (IGFS), Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK.
| | - Fraser D Menzies
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA), Belfast, UK
| | - Andrew W Byrne
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Belfast, UK; Department of Agriculture, Fisheries Food and Marine, Agriculture House, Kildare St, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Siobhán Porter
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Sciences Division, Belfast, UK
| | - Carl M McCormick
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA), Belfast, UK
| | - Kathryn R McBride
- Veterinary Epidemiology Unit, Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA), Belfast, UK
| | - D Michael Scantlebury
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security (IGFS), Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Neil Reid
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security (IGFS), Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
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Ashford RT, Anderson P, Waring L, Davé D, Smith F, Delahay RJ, Gormley E, Chambers MA, Sawyer J, Lesellier S. Evaluation of the Dual Path Platform (DPP) VetTB assay for the detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in badgers. Prev Vet Med 2020; 180:105005. [PMID: 32473415 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis, represents a major animal health issue. In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, European badgers (Meles meles) have been shown to act as a reservoir of M. bovis infection, hindering the eradication of bTB in livestock. The availability of suitable diagnostic assays, particularly those that may be applied in a "trap-side" setting, would facilitate the implementation of a wider range of disease control strategies. Here we evaluate the Dual Path Platform (DPP) VetTB assay, a lateral-flow type test for detecting antibodies to M. bovis antigens (MPB83 and ESAT-6/CFP-10). Both serum and whole blood were evaluated as diagnostic samples. Additionally, two methods were evaluated for interpretation of test results (qualitative interpretation by eye and quantitative measurement using an optical reader). The antibody response to MPB83 detected by the DPP VetTB assay increased significantly following experimental M. bovis infection of badgers, whilst the response to ESAT-6/CFP-10 showed no significant change. In sera from TB-free captive and naturally M. bovis infected wild badgers the MPB83 response exhibited a sensitivity of 55 % by eye and quantitative reader (95 % CI: 40-71 and 38-71, respectively), with slightly lower specificity when read by eye (93 % compared to 98 %; 95 % CI: 85-100 and 90-100, respectively). In whole blood, the DPP VetTB assay MPB83 response exhibited a sensitivity of 65 % (95 % CI: 50-80) when interpreted by eye and 53 % (95 % CI: 36-69) using quantitative values, whilst the specificity was 94 % and 98 % respectively (95 % CI: 88-100 and 90-100). Comparison with contemporaneous diagnostic test results from putatively naturally infected and TB-free badgers demonstrated varying levels of agreement. Using sera from naturally M. bovis infected and TB-free badgers, with post mortem confirmation of disease status, the DPP VetTB assay exhibited a sensitivity of 60 % (95 % CI: 41-77) when interpreted using quantitative values (specificity 95 %; 95 % CI: 76-100), and 67 % (95 % CI: 50-84) when read by eye (specificity 95 %; 95 % CI: 86-100). Further work is required to robustly characterize the DPP VetTB assay's performance in a wider selection of samples, and in the practical and epidemiological contexts in which it may be applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland T Ashford
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
| | - Paul Anderson
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Waring
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodchester Park, Nympsfield, Gloucestershire, GL10 3UJ, United Kingdom
| | - Dipesh Davé
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Freya Smith
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodchester Park, Nympsfield, Gloucestershire, GL10 3UJ, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J Delahay
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodchester Park, Nympsfield, Gloucestershire, GL10 3UJ, United Kingdom
| | - Eamonn Gormley
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Veterinary Science Centre, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Mark A Chambers
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Sawyer
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Sandrine Lesellier
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom; Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, ANSES, CS 40009 54220, Malzéville, Nancy, France
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Byrne RL, Fogarty U, Mooney A, Harris E, Good M, Marples NM, Holland CV. The helminth parasite community of European badgers ( Meles meles) in Ireland. J Helminthol 2019; 94:e37. [PMID: 30767800 DOI: 10.1017/S0022149X19000051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The European badger (Meles meles) is Ireland's largest terrestrial carnivore. Since first being identified as a wildlife reservoir of bovine tuberculosis in 1974 there has been an increased research focus into the behaviour of these ecologically important mammals in the Republic of Ireland (ROI). However, to date there has never been an assessment of the helminth parasite community of Irish badgers. This study of 289 badgers found helminth infection to be endemic within the sample population and we report for the first time the prevalence, abundance, intensity and aggregation of helminth infection in ROI. Eight distinct helminth taxa were recorded: Aelurostrongylus falciformis, Crenosoma melesi, Eucoleus aerophilus, Species A, Strongyloides spp., Uncinaria criniformis, and two unidentifiable but morphologically distinct nematodes. All helminths belong to the taxon Nematoda, and this is the first report of an exclusively nematode community across the badger's Eurasian distribution. Infection was not significantly influenced by the host sex, region of origin or season of sampling.
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Infantes-Lorenzo JA, Dave D, Moreno I, Anderson P, Lesellier S, Gormley E, Dominguez L, Balseiro A, Gortázar C, Dominguez M, Salguero FJ. New serological platform for detecting antibodies against Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in European badgers. Vet Med Sci 2019; 5:61-69. [PMID: 30656864 PMCID: PMC6376137 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
European badgers (Meles meles) have been identified as wildlife reservoirs for Mycobacterium bovis in the UK and Ireland, and may also have a role in the epidemiology of animal tuberculosis in other European regions. Thus, detection of M. bovis‐infected badgers may be required for the purposes of surveillance and monitoring of disease levels in infected populations. Current serological assays to detect M. bovis infection in live badgers, while rapid and inexpensive, show limited diagnostic sensitivity. Here we describe and evaluate new ELISA platforms for the recognition of the P22 multiprotein complex derived from the purified protein derivative (PPD) of M. bovis. The recognition of IgG against P22 multiprotein complex derived from PPD‐B was tested by ELISA in the serum of badgers from the UK, Ireland and Spain. TB infection in the badgers was indicated by the presence of M. bovis in tissues by culture and histology at post‐mortem examination and TB‐free status was established by repeated negativity in the interferon γ release assay (IGRA). In experimentally infected badgers, humoral antibody responses against P22 developed within 45 days post‐infection. The ELISA tests showed estimated sensitivity levels of 74–82% in experimentally and naturally infected badgers with specificities ranging from 75% to 100% depending on the badger population tested. The P22 multi‐antigen based ELISAs provide a sensitive and specific test platform for improved tuberculosis surveillance in badgers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dipesh Dave
- Bacteriology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Immaculada Moreno
- Unidad de Inmunología Microbiana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Paul Anderson
- Bacteriology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Sandrine Lesellier
- Bacteriology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Eamonn Gormley
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin, Ireland
| | - Lucas Dominguez
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Balseiro
- Centro de Biotecnología Animal, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario (SERIDA), Deva-Gijón, Asturias, Spain
| | - Christian Gortázar
- SaBio Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Mercedes Dominguez
- Unidad de Inmunología Microbiana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco J Salguero
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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Stedman A, Maluquer de Motes C, Lesellier S, Dalley D, Chambers M, Gutierrez-Merino J. Lactic acid Bacteria isolated from European badgers (Meles meles) reduce the viability and survival of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine and influence the immune response to BCG in a human macrophage model. BMC Microbiol 2018; 18:74. [PMID: 30005620 PMCID: PMC6044090 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-018-1210-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) caused by Mycobacterium bovis is the most serious endemic disease affecting livestock in the UK. The European badger (Meles meles) is the most important wildlife reservoir of bTB transmission to cattle, making eradication particularly difficult. In this respect, oral vaccination with the attenuated M. bovis vaccine Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) has been suggested as a wide-scale intervention to reduce bTB infection in badgers. However, experimental studies show variable protection. Among the possibilities for this variation is that the resident gut bacteria may influence the success of oral vaccination in badgers; either through competitive exclusion and/or inhibition, or via effects on the host immune system. In order to explore this possibility, we have tested whether typical gut commensals such as Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) have the capacity to impact on the viability and survival rate of BCG and to modulate the immune response to BCG using an in vitro model. Results Twelve LAB isolated from badger faeces displayed inhibitory activity to BCG that was species-dependent. Weissella had a bacteriostatic effect, whereas isolates of enterococci, lactobacilli and pediococci had a more bactericidal activity. Furthermore, BCG-induced activation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB in human THP-1 macrophages was modulated by LAB in a strain-dependent manner. Most pediococci enhanced NF-κB activation but one strain had the opposite effect. Interestingly, isolates of enterococci, lactobacilli and weissella had different effects as immunomodulators of BCG-induced macrophage responses as some had no significant influence on NF-κB activation, but others increased it significantly. Conclusions Our in vitro results show that LAB isolated from badgers exhibit significant inhibitory activity against BCG and influence the immune activation mediated by BCG in a human macrophage assay. These findings suggest that gut commensal bacteria could play a role in influencing the outcome of oral BCG vaccination. Inactivated cells of LAB, or LAB that are bacteriostatic but have a synergistic immunostimulatory effect with BCG, could be potential adjuvants to be used for oral vaccination in badgers. Further work is needed to take into account the complex nature of the gut microbiome, specific immunity of the badger and the in vivo context. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-018-1210-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Stedman
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK.,The Pirbright Institute, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Sandrine Lesellier
- Bacteriology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Deanna Dalley
- Bacteriology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Mark Chambers
- Bacteriology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, UK.,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7AL, UK
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Abstract
A brief history of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and its control in Great Britain (GB) is presented. Numerous diverse policies to control the disease in humans, cattle and wildlife have been pursued over the last 100 years and many millions of pounds have been spent. After notable success in reducing the incidence and prevalence of bTB in cattle in GB from the 1950s to the mid-1980s, the geographical spread of the disease and the number of cattle slaughtered have increased continually since that time, with a high point of bTB incidence in 2008. This increase appeared to coincide with changing policy regarding the control of the disease in badgers, with a more humane approach adopted and with strengthened protection for badgers through legislation. Indeed, there has been much controversy in the debate on the role of badgers in disease transmission to cattle and the need for their control as vectors of the disease. The issue has attracted the attention of the media and there have been various commissioned research projects, trials and public consultations. The findings of two social science investigations presented as examples showed that citizens generally believed that bTB in cattle is an important issue that needs to be tackled, but objected to badgers being killed, whilst cattle farmers were willing to pay around £17/animal/year for a bTB cattle vaccine. It is noted that successes regarding the control of bTB in other countries have combined both cattle and wildlife controls and involved industry working in close partnership with government.
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Chen K, Huang SY, Wang JL, Hu RL, Yao QX, Zhang SF, Zhu XQ, Liu Q. Prevalence and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in badgers (Melogale moschata) in southern China by PCR-RFLP. Infect Genet Evol 2017; 52:30-33. [PMID: 28434971 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2017] [Revised: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular apicomplexan parasite which is able to infect almost all warm-blooded animals. There is no information about the prevalence and genetic characterization of T. gondii in badgers (Melogale moschata) in China. Here, a total of 367 badgers were captured from different cities in Jiangxi province, Southern China. Genomic DNA was extracted from brain tissues of each badgers, and 57 (15.45%) of them were positive for T. gondii by semi-nested PCR of the B1 gene. The positive DNA samples were typed at 11 genetic markers, including 10 nuclear loci (SAG1, 5'-SAG2 and 3'-SAG2, alternative SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1) and an apicoplast locus (Apico), with multilocus polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technology. Among them, 4 were completely typed at all loci, and 2 was genotyped for 9 loci, showing that they belong to ToxoDB#9. This is the first report of prevalence and genetic characterization of T. gondii isolates from badgers in China, which contributes to broader understanding of population structure of T. gondii in China. It is important for the prevention and control of T. gondii infection in wild animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, PR China
| | - Si-Yang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, PR China; Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225009, PR China.
| | - Jin-Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, PR China
| | - Rong-Liang Hu
- Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun, Jilin Province 130122, PR China
| | - Qiu-Xia Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, PR China; Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225009, PR China
| | - Shou-Feng Zhang
- Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun, Jilin Province 130122, PR China
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, PR China; Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province 225009, PR China
| | - Quan Liu
- Military Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun, Jilin Province 130122, PR China
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14
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Di Sabatino D, Di Francesco G, Zaccaria G, Malatesta D, Brugnola L, Marcacci M, Portanti O, De Massis F, Savini G, Teodori L, Ruggieri E, Mangone I, Badagliacca P, Lorusso A. Lethal distemper in badgers (Meles meles) following epidemic in dogs and wolves. Infect Genet Evol 2016; 46:130-137. [PMID: 27876612 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2016.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 10/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) represents an important conservation threat to many wild carnivores. A large distemper epidemic sustained by an Arctic-lineage strain occurred in Italy in 2013, mainly in the Abruzzi region, causing overt disease in domestic and shepherd dogs, Apennine wolves (Canis lupus) and other wild carnivores. Two badgers were collected by the end of September 2015 in a rural area of the Abruzzi region and were demonstrated to be CDV-positive by real time RT-PCR and IHC in several tissues. The genome of CDV isolates from badgers showed Y549H substitution in the mature H protein. By employing all publicly available Arctic-lineage H protein encoding gene sequences, six amino acid changes in recent Italian strains with respect to Italian strains of dogs from 2000 to 2008, were observed. A CDV strain belonging to the European-wildlife lineage was also identified in a fox found dead in the same region in 2016, proving co-circulation of an additional CDV lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Di Sabatino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Gabriella Di Francesco
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Guendalina Zaccaria
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Daniela Malatesta
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Luca Brugnola
- Corpo Forestale dello Stato, Ufficio Territoriale per la Biodiversità, Viale Riviera 29, 65121, Pescara, Italy
| | - Maurilia Marcacci
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Ottavio Portanti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Fabrizio De Massis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Giovanni Savini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Liana Teodori
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Enzo Ruggieri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Iolanda Mangone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Pietro Badagliacca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy
| | - Alessio Lorusso
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise (IZSAM), Campo Boario, 64100, Teramo, Italy.
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Robertson A, Delahay RJ, Wilson GJ, Vernon IJ, McDonald RA, Judge J. How well do farmers know their badgers? Relating farmer knowledge to ecological survey data. Vet Rec 2016; 180:48. [PMID: 27756866 DOI: 10.1136/vr.103819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge of badger distribution is important for the management of bovine tuberculosis. At the farm level, typically the only information on badger activity available is from the farmers themselves. This study compares how well farmer perceptions of badger activity match data obtained from ecological surveys. Farmer estimates of numbers of badger setts (burrows) surrounding their farms were generally correlated with field survey results, but tended to be underestimates. Farmers correctly recorded 50 per cent of setts recorded in surveys, with larger setts and active setts more likely to be correctly recorded. Badger visits to farm buildings and yards were also monitored using surveillance cameras. The majority of farmers were aware of badger visits to their farm buildings, but in 22 per cent of cases farmers were not aware of badger visits. At the farm level, knowledge of badger activity will be useful in informing vets and animal health professionals of the potential risks of disease transmission, and hence directing management interventions. However, the tendency to underestimate activity, combined with a lack of detailed knowledge of sett locations, means that farmer estimates of badger activity should be interpreted with caution and in isolation may not be sufficient to inform management interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Robertson
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodchester Park, Nympsfield, Gloucestershire GL10 3UJ, UK
| | - R J Delahay
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodchester Park, Nympsfield, Gloucestershire GL10 3UJ, UK
| | - G J Wilson
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodchester Park, Nympsfield, Gloucestershire GL10 3UJ, UK
| | - I J Vernon
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodchester Park, Nympsfield, Gloucestershire GL10 3UJ, UK
| | - R A McDonald
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9EZ, UK
| | - J Judge
- Biocensus Limited, The Malt House, 17-20 Sydney Buildings, Bath BA2 6BZ, UK
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16
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O'Mahony DT. Multi-species visit rates to farmyards: implications for biosecurity. Vet J 2015; 203:126-8. [PMID: 25458881 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Disease transmission dynamics between wildlife and livestock are likely to be affected by contacts between the two populations. In this study, rates of visitation of rodents, badgers, red foxes and cats to 11 farmyards were quantified from July 2012 to August 2013. There was variation in rates of visitation between different species and between farmyards. Rates of visitation were 60.3% (n = 2374) for cats, 19.1% (n = 751) for rodents, 16.7% (n = 657) for red foxes and 3.9% (n = 153) for badgers. Multi-species visits are relevant to disease transmission, highlighting the need for increased biosecurity on farms.
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Murphy D, Costello E, Aldwell FE, Lesellier S, Chambers MA, Fitzsimons T, Corner LAL, Gormley E. Oral vaccination of badgers (Meles meles) against tuberculosis: comparison of the protection generated by BCG vaccine strains Pasteur and Danish. Vet J 2014; 200:362-7. [PMID: 24792450 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination of badgers by the subcutaneous, mucosal and oral routes with the Pasteur strain of Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) has resulted in significant protection against experimental infection with virulent M. bovis. However, as the BCG Danish strain is the only commercially licensed BCG vaccine for use in humans in the European Union it is the vaccine of choice for delivery to badger populations. As all oral vaccination studies in badgers were previously conducted using the BCG Pasteur strain, this study compared protection in badgers following oral vaccination with the Pasteur and the Danish strains. Groups of badgers were vaccinated orally with 10(8) colony forming units (CFU) BCG Danish 1331 (n = 7 badgers) or 10(8) CFU BCG Pasteur 1173P2 (n = 6). Another group (n = 8) served as non-vaccinated controls. At 12 weeks post-vaccination, the animals were challenged by the endobronchial route with 6 × 10(3) CFU M. bovis, and at 15 weeks post-infection, all of the badgers were euthanased. Vaccination with either BCG strain provided protection against challenge compared with controls. The vaccinated badgers had significantly fewer sites with gross pathology and significantly lower gross pathological severity scores, fewer sites with histological lesions and fewer sites of infection, significantly lower bacterial counts in the thoracic lymph node, and lower bacterial counts in the lungs than the control group. No differences were observed between either of the vaccine groups by any of the pathology and bacteriology measures. The ELISPOT analysis, measuring production of badger interferon - gamma (IFN-γ), was also similar across the vaccinated groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Murphy
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Eamon Costello
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Backweston, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Frank E Aldwell
- Immune Solutions Ltd, Centre for Innovation, The University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Sandrine Lesellier
- Department of Bovine Tuberculosis, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Mark A Chambers
- Department of Bovine Tuberculosis, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Tara Fitzsimons
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Leigh A L Corner
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Eamonn Gormley
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin 4, Ireland.
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18
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Affiliation(s)
- R Jin
- UCD School of Mathematical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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