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García-López M, Hernández P, Megias D, Ferrándiz MJ, de la Campa AG. Physiologic and Transcriptomic Effects Triggered by Overexpression of Wild Type and Mutant DNA Topoisomerase I in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15800. [PMID: 37958782 PMCID: PMC10648598 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Topoisomerase I (TopoI) in Streptococcus pneumoniae, encoded by topA, is a suitable target for drug development. Seconeolitsine (SCN) is a new antibiotic that specifically blocks this enzyme. We obtained the topARA mutant, which encodes an enzyme less active than the wild type (topAWT) and more resistant to SCN inhibition. Likely due to the essentiality of TopoI, we were unable to replace the topAWT allele by the mutant topARA version. We compared the in vivo activity of TopoIRA and TopoIWT using regulated overexpression strains, whose genes were either under the control of a moderately (PZn) or a highly active promoter (PMal). Overproduction of TopoIRA impaired growth, increased SCN resistance and, in the presence of the gyrase inhibitor novobiocin (NOV), caused lower relaxation than TopoIWT. Differential transcriptomes were observed when the topAWT and topARA expression levels were increased about 5-fold. However, higher increases (10-15 times), produced a similar transcriptome, affecting about 52% of the genome, and correlating with a high DNA relaxation level with most responsive genes locating in topological domains. These results confirmed that TopoI is indeed the target of SCN in S. pneumoniae and show the important role of TopoI in global transcription, supporting its suitability as an antibiotic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam García-López
- Unidad de Genética Bacteriana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Pablo Hernández
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Diego Megias
- Unidad de Microscopía Confocal, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain;
| | - María-José Ferrándiz
- Unidad de Genética Bacteriana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Adela G. de la Campa
- Unidad de Genética Bacteriana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain;
- Presidencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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Arya PK, Mandal P, Barik K, Singh DV, Kumar A. Computational evaluation of phytochemicals targeting DNA topoisomerase I in Leishmania donovani: molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37697722 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2023.2256865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
DNA topoisomerase I (Topo I) is a ubiquitous enzyme that plays a crucial role in resolving the topological constraints of supercoiled DNA during various cellular activities, including repair, replication, recombination, transcription, and chromatin remodeling. Multiple studies have confirmed the essential role of Topo I in nucleic acid metabolism of Leishmania donovani, the kinetoplastid parasite responsible for visceral leishmaniasis or kala-azar. Inhibition of this enzyme has shown promise as a strategy for therapy against visceral leishmaniasis. However, current treatment options suffer from limitations related to effectiveness, cost, and side effects. To address these challenges, computational methods have been employed in this study to investigate the inhibition of Leishmania donovani DNA topoisomerase I (LdTopo I) by phytochemicals derived from Indian medicinal plants known for their anti-leishmanial activity. A library of phytochemicals and known inhibitors was assembled, and virtual screening based on docking binding affinities was conducted to identify potent phytochemical inhibitors. To assess the drug-likeness of the docked phytochemicals, their physicochemical properties were predicted. Additionally, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed on the docked complexes for a duration of 100 ns to evaluate their stability, intermolecular interactions, and dynamic behavior. Among all the docked phytochemicals, three compounds, namely CID23266147 (withanolide N), CID5488537 (fagopyrine), and CID100947536 (isozeylanone), exhibited the highest inhibitory potential against LdTopo I. These findings hold promise for the development of novel inhibitors targeting LdTopo I, which could potentially lead to improved therapies for visceral leishmaniasis.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pranabesh Mandal
- Department of Bioinformatics, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, India
| | - Krishnendu Barik
- Department of Bioinformatics, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, India
| | - Durg Vijay Singh
- Department of Bioinformatics, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, India
| | - Anil Kumar
- Department of Bioinformatics, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, India
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Arutyunyan AF, Kostyukov AA, Korolev SP, Gottikh MB, Kaluzhny DN, Susova OY, Zhuze AL. [DNA Sequence-Specific Ligands. 19. Synthesis, Spectral Properties, Virological and Biochemical Studies of DB3(n) Fluorescent Dimeric Trisbenzimidazoles]. Mol Biol (Mosk) 2023; 57:517-527. [PMID: 37326056 DOI: 10.31857/s0026898423030023, edn: cgxjlt] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we synthesized and characterized the properties of a series of new fluorescent DB3(n) narrow-groove ligands. DB3(n) compounds based on dimeric trisbenzimidazoles have the ability to bind to the AT regions of DNA. The synthesis of DB3(n), whose trisbenzimidazole fragments are linked by oligomethylene linkers of different lengths (n = 1, 5, 9), is based on the condensation of the MB3 monomeric trisbenzimidazole with α,ω-alkyldicarboxylic acids. DB3 (n) proved to be effective inhibitors of the catalytic activity of HIV-1 integrase at submicromolar concentrations (0.20-0.30 μM). DB3(n) was found to inhibit the catalytic activity of DNA topoisomerase I at low micromolar concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A F Arutyunyan
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991 Russia
| | - A A Kostyukov
- Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 119334 Russia
| | - S P Korolev
- Department of Chemistry, Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia
- Belozersky Institute of Physicochemical Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia
| | - M B Gottikh
- Department of Chemistry, Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia
- Belozersky Institute of Physicochemical Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia
| | - D N Kaluzhny
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991 Russia
| | - O Yu Susova
- Research Institute of Carcinogenesis, Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology, Moscow, 115478 Russia
| | - A L Zhuze
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991 Russia
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de Vasconcelos Junior AA, Tirado-Vélez JM, Martín-Galiano AJ, Megias D, Ferrándiz MJ, Hernández P, Amblar M, de la Campa AG. StaR Is a Positive Regulator of Topoisomerase I Activity Involved in Supercoiling Maintenance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065973. [PMID: 36983048 PMCID: PMC10053502 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The DNA topoisomerases gyrase and topoisomerase I as well as the nucleoid-associated protein HU maintain supercoiling levels in Streptococcus pneumoniae, a main human pathogen. Here, we characterized, for the first time, a topoisomerase I regulator protein (StaR). In the presence of sub-inhibitory novobiocin concentrations, which inhibit gyrase activity, higher doubling times were observed in a strain lacking staR, and in two strains in which StaR was over-expressed either under the control of the ZnSO4-inducible PZn promoter (strain ΔstaRPZnstaR) or of the maltose-inducible PMal promoter (strain ΔstaRpLS1ROMstaR). These results suggest that StaR has a direct role in novobiocin susceptibility and that the StaR level needs to be maintained within a narrow range. Treatment of ΔstaRPZnstaR with inhibitory novobiocin concentrations resulted in a change of the negative DNA supercoiling density (σ) in vivo, which was higher in the absence of StaR (σ = -0.049) than when StaR was overproduced (σ = -0.045). We have located this protein in the nucleoid by using super-resolution confocal microscopy. Through in vitro activity assays, we demonstrated that StaR stimulates TopoI relaxation activity, while it has no effect on gyrase activity. Interaction between TopoI and StaR was detected both in vitro and in vivo by co-immunoprecipitation. No alteration of the transcriptome was associated with StaR amount variation. The results suggest that StaR is a new streptococcal nucleoid-associated protein that activates topoisomerase I activity by direct protein-protein interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jose M Tirado-Vélez
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio J Martín-Galiano
- Unidades Centrales Científico-Técnicas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Diego Megias
- Unidad de Microscopía Confocal, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - María-José Ferrándiz
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pablo Hernández
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Mónica Amblar
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Adela G de la Campa
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
- Presidencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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García-López M, Megias D, Ferrándiz MJ, de la Campa AG. The balance between gyrase and topoisomerase I activities determines levels of supercoiling, nucleoid compaction, and viability in bacteria. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1094692. [PMID: 36713152 PMCID: PMC9875019 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1094692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Two enzymes are responsible for maintaining supercoiling in the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae, gyrase (GyrA2GyrB2) and topoisomerase I. To attain diverse levels of topoisomerase I (TopoI, encoded by topA), two isogenic strains derived from wild-type strain R6 were constructed: PZn topA, carrying an ectopic topA copy under the control of the ZnSO4-regulated PZn promoter and its derivative ΔtopAPZn topA, which carries a topA deletion at its native chromosomal location. We estimated the number of TopoI and GyrA molecules per cell by using Western-blot and CFUs counting, and correlated these values with supercoiling levels. Supercoiling was estimated in two ways. We used classical 2D-agarose gel electrophoresis of plasmid topoisomers to determine supercoiling density (σ) and we measured compaction of nucleoids using for the first time super-resolution confocal microscopy. Notably, we observed a good correlation between both supercoiling calculations. In R6, with σ = -0.057, the average number of GyrA molecules per cell (2,184) was higher than that of TopoI (1,432), being the GyrA:TopoI proportion of 1:0.65. In ΔtopAPZn topA, the number of TopoI molecules depended, as expected, on ZnSO4 concentration in the culture media, being the proportions of GyrA:TopoI molecules in 75, 150, and 300 μM ZnSO4 of 1:0.43, 1:0.47, and 1:0.63, respectively, which allowed normal supercoiling and growth. However, in the absence of ZnSO4, a higher GyrA:TopoI ratio (1:0.09) caused hyper-supercoiling (σ = -0.086) and lethality. Likewise, growth of ΔtopAPZn topA in the absence of ZnSO4 was restored when gyrase was inhibited with novobiocin, coincidentally with the resolution of hyper-supercoiling (σ change from -0.080 to -0.068). Given that TopoI is a monomer and two molecules of GyrA are present in the gyrase heterotetramer, the gyrase:TopoI enzymes proportion would be 1:1.30 (wild type R6) or of 1:1.26-0.86 (ΔtopAPZn topA under viable conditions). Higher proportions, such as 1:0.18 observed in ΔtopAPZn topA in the absence of ZnSO4 yielded to hyper-supercoiling and lethality. These results support a role of the equilibrium between gyrase and TopoI activities in supercoiling maintenance, nucleoid compaction, and viability. Our results shed new light on the mechanism of action of topoisomerase-targeting antibiotics, paving the way for the use of combination therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Míriam García-López
- Unidad de Genética Bacteriana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Diego Megias
- Unidad de Microscopía Confocal, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - María-José Ferrándiz
- Unidad de Genética Bacteriana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain,*Correspondence: María-José Ferrándiz, ✉
| | - Adela G. de la Campa
- Unidad de Genética Bacteriana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain,Presidencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain,Adela G. de la Campa, ✉
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Zhao D, Wu D, Zhang G, Li Y, Shi W, Zhong B, Yu H. A novel irinotecan derivative ZBH-1207 with different anti-tumor mechanism from CPT-11 against colon cancer cells. Mol Biol Rep 2022. [PMID: 35764749 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-022-07652-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Irinotecan (CPT-11) is a camptothecin derivative whose potent anti-tumor activity depends on the rapid formation of an in vivo active metabolite, SN38 (7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin). CPT-11 combine with other agents are often the treatment of choice for patients with advanced or metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC). This study evaluates the cytotoxic mechanism of a novel CPT-11 derivative, ZBH-1207 in CRC cells in vitro. METHODS The anti-proliferation effect of ZBH-1207 on tumor cells was assessed by MTT assay. The inhibition of TOP1, the alteration of cell cycle and apoptosis, and the expression of caspase-3 and PARP in CRC cells induced by ZBH-1207 were detected by DNA relaxation assay, flow cytometry, and Western blot, respectively. RESULTS ZBH-1207 significantly inhibits the proliferation of seven tumor cell lines and retains the activity of TOP1 as compared with CPT-11. Treatment with ZBH-1207 results in more apparent cell cycle arrests and apoptosis of CRC cells than that of CPT-11 and SN38. Accordingly, up-regulation of active caspase-3 and PARP expression were relatively higher in ZBH-1207 group than that in CPT-11 and SN38 group. CONCLUSION ZBH-1207 has higher cytotoxicity than CPT-11/SN38 in CRC cells. Its molecular mechanism involves apoptosis signaling pathway.
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Wang CY, Liu XH, Zheng YY, Ning XY, Zhang YH, Fu XM, Li X, Shao CL, Wang CY. 2,5-Diketopiperazines From a Sponge-Derived Fungus Aspergillus sclerotiorum. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:808532. [PMID: 35668768 PMCID: PMC9164150 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.808532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Three new 2,5-diketopiperazines, speramide C (1), 3,21-epi-taichunamide F (2), and 2-epi-amoenamide C (3), along with four known analogs (4-7), were obtained from the sponge-derived fungus Aspergillus sclerotiorum GDST-2013-0501 collected from the South China Sea. The chemical structures of new compounds were elucidated by analyzing NMR and MS spectroscopy data, and their absolute configurations were determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. Compound 1 represents the first prenylated indole alkaloid with an ethylene oxide ring at the isopentenyl side chain. Compound 4 displayed DNA topoisomerase I inhibitory activity and antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis. The low cytotoxic or non-cytotoxic compound 4 displayed DNA topoisomerase I inhibitory activity, which could provide a starting point for the development of antitumor agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Yi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiao-Han Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Yao-Yao Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xing-Yan Ning
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Ya-Hui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiu-Mei Fu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xin Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Chang-Lun Shao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Chang-Yun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, The Ministry of Education of China, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- Institute of Evolution and Marine Biodiversity, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
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Ozawa S, Miura T, Terashima J, Habano W. Cellular irinotecan resistance in colorectal cancer and overcoming irinotecan refractoriness through various combination trials including DNA methyltransferase inhibitors: a review. Cancer Drug Resist 2022; 4:946-964. [PMID: 35582377 PMCID: PMC8992440 DOI: 10.20517/cdr.2021.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Treatment with pharmacological drugs for colorectal cancer (CRC) remains unsatisfactory. A major cause of failure in pharmacotherapy is the resistance of colon cancer cells to the drugs, creating an urgent issue. In this review, we summarize previous studies on the resistance of CRC cells to irinotecan and discuss possible reasons for refractoriness. Our review presents the following five major causes of irinotecan resistance in human CRC: (1) cellular irinotecan resistance is induced mainly through the increased expression of the drug efflux transporter, ABCG2; (2) cellular irinotecan resistance is also induced in association with a nuclear receptor, pregnane/steroid X receptor (PXR/SXR), which is enriched in the CYP3A4 gene enhancer region in CRC cells by exposing the cells to SN-38; (3) irinotecan-resistant cells possess either reduced DNA topoisomerase I (Top1) expression at both the mRNA and protein levels or Top1 missense mutations; (4) alterations in the tumor microenvironment lead to drug resistance through intercellular vesicle-mediated transmission of miRNAs; and (5) CRC stem cells are the most difficult targets to successfully treat CRC. In the clinical setting, CRC gradually develops resistance to initially effective irinotecan-based therapy. To solve this problem, several clinical trials, such as irinotecan plus cetuximab vs. cetuximab monotherapy, have been conducted. Another clinical trial on irinotecan plus guadecitabine, a DNA-methyltransferase inhibitor, has also been conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shogo Ozawa
- Division of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Genetics, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate 028-3694, Japan
| | - Toshitaka Miura
- Division of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Genetics, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate 028-3694, Japan
| | - Jun Terashima
- Division of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Genetics, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate 028-3694, Japan
| | - Wataru Habano
- Division of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Genetics, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Iwate 028-3694, Japan
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Deatherage DE, Barrick JE. High-throughput characterization of mutations in genes that drive clonal evolution using multiplex adaptome capture sequencing. Cell Syst 2021; 12:1187-1200.e4. [PMID: 34536379 DOI: 10.1016/j.cels.2021.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how cells are likely to evolve can guide medical interventions and bioengineering efforts that must contend with unwanted mutations. The adaptome of a cell-the neighborhood of genetic changes that are most likely to drive adaptation in a given environment-can be mapped by tracking rare beneficial variants during the early stages of clonal evolution. We used multiplex adaptome capture sequencing (mAdCap-seq), a procedure that combines unique molecular identifiers and hybridization-based enrichment, to characterize mutations in eight Escherichia coli genes known to be under selection in a laboratory environment. We tracked 301 mutations at frequencies as low as 0.01% and inferred the fitness effects of 240 of these mutations. There were distinct molecular signatures of selection on protein structure and function for the three genes with the most beneficial mutations. Our results demonstrate how mAdCap-seq can be used to deeply profile a targeted portion of a cell's adaptome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Deatherage
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Center for Systems and Synthetic Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Jeffrey E Barrick
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Center for Systems and Synthetic Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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10
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Chen R, Huang J, Jaiswal Y, Wei J, Huo L, Xia X, Zhong J, Williams L, Huang M, Liang Y. Molecular Design, Synthesis and Docking Study of Alkyl and Benzyl Derivatives of Robustic Acid as Topoisomerase I Inhibitors. Chem Biodivers 2020; 17:e1900556. [PMID: 31943759 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201900556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Robustic acid is reported to be a bioactive compound, isolated from the medicinal plant Dalbergia benthamii Prain. Ten alkyl and benzyl derivatives (2a-2j) of robustic acid were designed and synthesized based on molecular docking approaches. The biological activities of most of the synthesized compounds (such as 2g, 2h, and 2i) were closely consistent with the docking results. In particular, 4-O-phenylpropyl substituted compound 2g displayed potent topoisomerase I inhibitory activity as well as cytotoxicity against SMMC-7721, HepG2, and HeLa cell lines. Further biological testing suggests that compound 2g acted mainly by an arrest of the tumor cells in G1 phase of the cell cycle and suppressed cell proliferation by inducing apoptosis. The findings of this study are encouraging with respect to potential utilization of these compounds as new topoisomerase I inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Chen
- Institute of Pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China.,Faculty of Chinese Medicine Science, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China
| | - Jiayong Huang
- Institute of Pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China
| | - Yogini Jaiswal
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina A&T State University, The North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC-28081, USA
| | - Jianhua Wei
- Institute of Pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China
| | - Lini Huo
- Institute of Pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China
| | - Xing Xia
- Institute of Pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China
| | - Jing Zhong
- Institute of Pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China
| | - Leonard Williams
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina A&T State University, The North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC-28081, USA
| | - Maochun Huang
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine Science, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222, P. R. China
| | - Yan Liang
- Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, 530021, P. R. China
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Erdő-Bonyár S, Rapp J, Minier T, Ráth G, Najbauer J, Czirják L, Németh P, Berki T, Simon D. Toll-Like Receptor Mediated Activation of Natural Autoantibody Producing B Cell Subpopulations in an Autoimmune Disease Model. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E6152. [PMID: 31817576 PMCID: PMC6940962 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20246152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Altered expression and function of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) homologue CD180 molecule in B cells have been associated with autoimmune disorders. In this study, we report decreased expression of CD180 at protein and mRNA levels in peripheral blood B cells of diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis (dcSSc) patients. To analyze the effect of CD180 stimulation, together with CpG (TLR9 ligand) treatment, on the phenotype defined by CD19/CD27/IgD/CD24/CD38 staining, and function (CD69 and CD180 expression, cytokine and antibody secretion) of B cell subpopulations, we used tonsillar B cells. After stimulation, we found reduced expression of CD180 protein and mRNA in total B cells, and CD180 protein in B cell subpopulations. The frequency of CD180+ cells was the highest in the CD19+CD27+IgD+ non-switched (NS) B cell subset, and they showed the strongest activation after anti-CD180 stimulation. Furthermore, B cell activation via CD180 induced IL-6 and natural autoantibody secretion. Treatment with the combination of anti-CD180 antibody and CpG resulted in increased IL-6 and IL-10 secretion and natural autoantibody production of B cells. Our results support the role of CD180 in the induction of natural autoantibody production, possibly by NS B cells, and suggest an imbalance between the pathologic and natural autoantibody production in SSc patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szabina Erdő-Bonyár
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary; (S.E.-B.); (J.R.); (J.N.); (P.N.); (D.S.)
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7632 Pécs, Hungary; (T.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Judit Rapp
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary; (S.E.-B.); (J.R.); (J.N.); (P.N.); (D.S.)
| | - Tünde Minier
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7632 Pécs, Hungary; (T.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Gábor Ráth
- Department of Pediatrics, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7623 Pécs, Hungary;
| | - József Najbauer
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary; (S.E.-B.); (J.R.); (J.N.); (P.N.); (D.S.)
| | - László Czirják
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7632 Pécs, Hungary; (T.M.); (L.C.)
| | - Péter Németh
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary; (S.E.-B.); (J.R.); (J.N.); (P.N.); (D.S.)
| | - Timea Berki
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary; (S.E.-B.); (J.R.); (J.N.); (P.N.); (D.S.)
| | - Diána Simon
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Clinical Center, University of Pécs Medical School, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary; (S.E.-B.); (J.R.); (J.N.); (P.N.); (D.S.)
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Chen R, Huo L, Jaiswal Y, Wei J, Li D, Zhong J, Williams L, Xia X, Liang Y. Synthesis and Evaluation of Anticancer Activity of New 4-Acyloxy Derivatives of Robustic Acid. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E5336. [PMID: 31717797 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20215336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present study, a series of 4-acyloxy robustic acid derivatives were synthesized and characterized for evaluation of their anti-cancer activity. The structures of these derivatives were elucidated by mass spectra (MS) nuclear magnetic resonance spectra (NMR). The single-crystal X-ray diffraction structure of one of these compounds was obtained, for further validation of the target compound structures. The anticancer activities of the target products were evaluated against human leukemic cells HL-60, human non-small cell lung carcinoma cells A-549, human hepatic carcinoma cells SMMC-7721, human hepatocellular carcinoma cells HepG2, and human cervical carcinoma cells Hela. Three compounds among them exhibited potent in-vitro cytotoxicity and excellent DNA topoisomerase I inhibitory activity, even at 0.1 mM concentrations. The most noteworthy observation was the minor toxicity of two of these compounds to normal cells, with an activity similar to the positive control in cancerous cells. A Surflex-Dock docking study was performed to investigate the topoisomerase I activity of all compounds. Of all the other compounds, the most sensitive compound was selected for further investigation of its effect on apoptosis induction and cell cycle regulation in HL-60 cells. Our results suggest that the anticancer effects of these compounds can be attributed to their pharmacological effects on topoisomerase I, cell apoptosis, and cell cycle. These findings suggest that robustic acid derivatives could be used as potential antitumor drugs.
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Di Felice F, Egidi A, D'Alfonso A, Camilloni G. Fob1p recruits DNA topoisomerase I to ribosomal genes locus and contributes to its transcriptional silencing maintenance. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2019; 110:143-8. [PMID: 30880168 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
S. cerevisiae ribosomal DNA (rDNA) locus hosts a series of highly complex regulatory machineries for RNA polymerase I, II and III transcription, DNA replication and units recombination, all acting in the Non Transcribed Spacers (NTSs) interposed between the repeated units by which it is composed. DNA topoisomerase I (Top1p) contributes, recruiting Sir2p, to the maintenance of transcriptional silencing occurring at the RNA Polymerase II cryptic promoters, located in the NTS region. In this paper we found that Fob1p presence is crucial for Top1p recruitment at NTS, allowing transcriptional silencing to be established and maintained. We also showed the role of Nsr1p in Top1p recruitment to rDNA locus. Our work allows to hypothesize that Nsr1p targets Top1p into the nucleolus while Fob1p is responsible for its preferential distribution at RFB.
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Chan MK, Lim SK, Miswan N, Chew AL, Noordin R, Khoo BY. Expression of stable and active human DNA topoisomerase I in Pichia pastoris. Protein Expr Purif 2017; 141:52-62. [PMID: 28893606 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study described the isolation of the coding region of human topoisomerase I (TopoI) from MDA-MB-231 and the expression of multiple copy recombinant genes in four Pichia pastoris strains. First, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplification of the enzyme coding region was performed. The PCR fragment was cloned into pPICZ-α-A vector and sequenced. It was then transformed into X33, GS115, SMD1168H and KM71H strains of Pichia. PCR-screening for positive clones was performed, and estimation of multiple copy integrants in each Pichia strain was carried out using agar plates containing increasing concentrations of Zeocin®. The selected clones of multiple copy recombinant genes were then induced for TopoI expression in shaker flasks. GS115 and SMD1168 were found to be better Pichia strains to accommodate the recombinant gene for the expression of TopoI extracellularly. However, the DNA relaxation activity revealed that only the target enzyme in the culture supernatants of GS115-pPICZ-α-A-TopoI exhibited consistent enzyme activity over the cultivation time-points. Active enzyme activity was inhibited by Camptothecin. The enzyme produced can be used for in-house gel-based DNA relaxation assay development in performing high throughput screening for target-specific growth inhibitors that display similar effect as the TopoI inhibitors. These inhibitors may contribute to the improvement of the treatment of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mooi Kwai Chan
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Shern Kwok Lim
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Noorizan Miswan
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Ai Lan Chew
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Rahmah Noordin
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Boon Yin Khoo
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
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D'Alfonso A, Di Felice F, Carlini V, Wright CM, Hertz MI, Bjornsti MA, Camilloni G. Molecular Mechanism of DNA Topoisomerase I-Dependent rDNA Silencing: Sir2p Recruitment at Ribosomal Genes. J Mol Biol 2016; 428:4905-16. [PMID: 27825925 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2016.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Saccharomyces cerevisiae sir2Δ or top1Δ mutants exhibit similar phenotypes involving ribosomal DNA, including (i) loss of transcriptional silencing, resulting in non-coding RNA hyperproduction from cryptic RNA polymerase II promoters; (ii) alterations in recombination; and (iii) a general increase in histone acetylation. Given the distinct enzymatic activities of Sir2 and Top1 proteins, a histone deacetylase and a DNA topoisomerase, respectively, we investigated whether genetic and/or physical interactions between the two proteins could explain the shared ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) phenotypes. We employed an approach of complementing top1Δ cells with yeast, human, truncated, and chimeric yeast/human TOP1 constructs and of assessing the extent of non-coding RNA silencing and histone H4K16 deacetylation. Our findings demonstrate that residues 115-125 within the yeast Top1p N-terminal domain are required for the complementation of the top1∆ rDNA phenotypes. In chromatin immunoprecipitation and co-immunoprecipitation experiments, we further demonstrate the physical interaction between Top1p and Sir2p. Our genetic and biochemical studies support a model whereby Top1p recruits Sir2p to the rDNA and clarifies a structural role of DNA topoisomerase I in the epigenetic regulation of rDNA, independent of its known catalytic activity.
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Abstract
Objective: Gimatecan is a new camptothecin (CPT) analogue that inhibits tumor growth by targeting DNA
topoisomerase I (TOP I) and introducing strong and persistent DNA cleavage. Anti-tumor activity has been demonstrated
with a wide range of solid tumors in previous preclinical and clinical studies. Here, we investigated for the first time the
effects of gimatecan on the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells both in vitro and in vivo. Methods:
Anticancer efficacy of gimatecan were evaluated in a panel of HCC cell lines and corresponding mouse xenograft
models. Inhibition of cell proliferation was measured by CellTiter-Glo cell viability assay. In vivo, gimatecan and
control preparations were orally administered every four days, for a total of four times. Tumor volume and body weights
of the mice were measured twice weekly. Results: In vitro cytotoxicity evaluation showed that gimatecan inhibited
the proliferation of a large panel of HCC cell lines in a dose dependent manner, with IC50 values ranging between
12.1~1085.0 nM. In vivo evaluation in mouse xenograft models showed significant antitumor effects of gimatecan at
0.8mg/kg and 0.4mg/kg as compared to the control group. Conclusion: This study suggested that gimatecan may have
the potential to be used as a chemotherapeutic agent for the treatment of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youna Zhao
- Lee's Pharmaceutical (Hong Kong) Limited, Hong Kong,China.
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Banda S, Tiwari PB, Darici Y, Tse-Dinh YC. Investigating direct interaction between Escherichia coli topoisomerase I and RecA. Gene 2016; 585:65-70. [PMID: 27001450 PMCID: PMC4838544 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions are of special importance in cellular processes, including replication, transcription, recombination, and repair. Escherichia coli topoisomerase I (EcTOP1) is primarily involved in the relaxation of negative DNA supercoiling. E. coli RecA, the key protein for homologous recombination and SOS DNA-damage response, has been shown to stimulate the relaxation activity of EcTOP1. The evidence for their direct protein-protein interaction has not been previously established. We report here the direct physical interaction between E. coli RecA and topoisomerase I. We demonstrated the RecA-topoisomerase I interaction via pull-down assays, and surface plasmon resonance measurements. Molecular docking supports the observation that the interaction involves the topoisomerase I N-terminal domains that form the active site. Our results from pull-down assays showed that ATP, although not required, enhances the RecA-EcTOP1 interaction. We propose that E. coli RecA physically interacts with topoisomerase I to modulate the chromosomal DNA supercoiling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srikanth Banda
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | | | - Yesim Darici
- Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Yuk-Ching Tse-Dinh
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
- Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
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18
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Gmeiner WH, Gearhart PJ, Pommier Y, Nakamura J. F10 cytotoxicity via topoisomerase I cleavage complex repair consistent with a unique mechanism for thymineless death. Future Oncol 2016; 12:2183-8. [PMID: 27333295 DOI: 10.2217/fon-2016-0127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- William H Gmeiner
- Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Patricia J Gearhart
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology & Immunology, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Yves Pommier
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch and Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Jun Nakamura
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Kummar S, Chen A, Gutierrez M, Pfister TD, Wang L, Redon C, Bonner WM, Yutzy W, Zhang Y, Kinders RJ, Ji J, Allen D, Covey JM, Eiseman JL, Holleran JL, Beumer JH, Rubinstein L, Collins J, Tomaszewski J, Parchment R, Pommier Y, Doroshow JH. Clinical and pharmacologic evaluation of two dosing schedules of indotecan (LMP400), a novel indenoisoquinoline, in patients with advanced solid tumors. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2016; 78:73-81. [PMID: 27169793 DOI: 10.1007/s00280-016-2998-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Indenoisoquinolines are non-camptothecin topoisomerase I (TopI) inhibitors that overcome the limitations of camptothecins: chemical instability and camptothecin resistance. Two dosing schedules of the novel indenoisoquinoline, indotecan (LMP400), were evaluated in patients with advanced solid tumors. METHODS The maximum tolerated dose (MTD), toxicities, and pharmacokinetics of two indotecan drug administration schedules (daily for 5 days or weekly) were investigated. Modulation of TopI and the phosphorylation of histone H2AX (γH2AX) were assayed in tumor biopsies; γH2AX levels were also evaluated in circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and hair follicles to assess DNA damage response. RESULTS An MTD of 60 mg/m(2)/day was established for the daily regimen, compared to 90 mg/m(2) for the weekly regimen. The TopI response to drug showed target engagement in a subset of tumor biopsies. Pharmacokinetics profiles demonstrated a prolonged terminal half-life and tissue accumulation compared to topotecan. Dose-dependent decreases in total CTCs were measured in seven patients. Formation of γH2AX-positive foci in CTCs (day 3) and hair follicles (4-6 h) was observed following treatment. CONCLUSIONS We established the MTD of two dosing schedules for a novel TopI inhibitor, indotecan. Target engagement was demonstrated as Top1 downregulation and γH2AX response. No objective responses were observed on either schedule in this small patient cohort. The principal toxicity of both schedules was myelosuppression; no significant gastrointestinal problems were observed. Increased DNA damage response was observed in CTCs, hair follicles, and a subset of tumor biopsies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivaani Kummar
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Alice Chen
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Martin Gutierrez
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Thomas D Pfister
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Lihua Wang
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Christophe Redon
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - William M Bonner
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - William Yutzy
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Yiping Zhang
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Robert J Kinders
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Jiuping Ji
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Deborah Allen
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Joseph M Covey
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Julie L Eiseman
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Julianne L Holleran
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jan H Beumer
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Larry Rubinstein
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Jerry Collins
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Joseph Tomaszewski
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Ralph Parchment
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Yves Pommier
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - James H Doroshow
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Room 3A44, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA. .,Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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20
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Jensen NF, Agama K, Roy A, Smith DH, Pfister TD, Rømer MU, Zhang HL, Doroshow JH, Knudsen BR, Stenvang J, Brünner N, Pommier Y. Characterization of DNA topoisomerase I in three SN-38 resistant human colon cancer cell lines reveals a new pair of resistance-associated mutations. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2016; 35:56. [PMID: 27029323 PMCID: PMC4815242 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-016-0335-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND DNA topoisomerase I (Top1) is a DNA unwinding protein and the specific target of the camptothecin class of chemotherapeutic drugs. One of these, irinotecan, acting through its active metabolite SN-38, is used in the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer. However, resistance to irinotecan represents a major clinical problem. Since molecular alterations in Top1 may result in resistance to irinotecan, we characterized Top1 in three human colon cancer cell lines with acquired resistance to SN-38. METHODS Three SN-38 resistant (20-67 fold increased resistance) cell lines were generated and compared to wild-type parental cells with regards to: TOP1 gene copy number and gene sequence, Top1 expression (mRNA and protein), Top1 enzymatic activity in the absence and presence of drug, and Top1-DNA cleavage complexes in drug treated cells. TOP1 mutations were validated by PCR using mutant specific primers. Furthermore, cross-resistance to two indenoisoquinoline Top1-targeting drugs (NSC 725776 and NSC 743400) and two Top2-targeting drugs (epirubicin and etoposide) was investigated. RESULTS Two of three SN-38 resistant cell lines carried TOP1 gene copy number aberrations: A TOP1 gene copy gain and a loss of chromosome 20, respectively. One resistant cell line harbored a pair of yet unreported TOP1 mutations (R364K and G717R) in close proximity to the drug binding site. Mutant TOP1 was expressed at a markedly higher level than wild-type TOP1. None or very small reductions were observed in Top1 expression or Top1 activity in the absence of drug. In all three SN-38 resistant cell lines Top1 activity was maintained in the presence of high concentrations of SN-38. None or only partial cross-resistance were observed for etoposide and epirubicin, respectively. SN-38 resistant cells with wild-type TOP1 remained sensitive to NSC 743400, while cells with mutant TOP1 was fully cross-resistant to both indenoisoquinolines. Top1-DNA cleavage complex formation following drug treatment supported the other findings. CONCLUSIONS This study adds to the growing knowledge about resistance mechanisms for Top1-targeting chemotherapeutic drugs. Importantly, two yet unreported TOP1 mutations were identified, and it was underlined that cross-resistance to the new indenoisoquinoline drugs depends on the specific underlying molecular mechanism of resistance to SN-38.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels Frank Jensen
- />Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section for Molecular Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Keli Agama
- />National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, 37 Convent Drive, Building 37, Room 5068, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255 USA
| | - Amit Roy
- />Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, Building 1130, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
- />Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hajipur, Vaishali 844102 India
| | - David Hersi Smith
- />Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section for Molecular Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- />Dako Denmark A/S, R&D, Produktionsvej 42, DK-2600 Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Thomas D. Pfister
- />Laboratory of Human Toxicology and Pharmacology, Applied/Developmental Directorate, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702 USA
| | - Maria Unni Rømer
- />Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section for Molecular Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- />Department for Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Frederiksberg Hospital, Nordre Fasanvej 57, DK-2000 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Hong-Liang Zhang
- />National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, 37 Convent Drive, Building 37, Room 5068, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255 USA
| | - James H. Doroshow
- />National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, 37 Convent Drive, Building 37, Room 5068, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255 USA
- />Laboratory of Human Toxicology and Pharmacology, Applied/Developmental Directorate, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702 USA
| | - Birgitta R. Knudsen
- />Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, Building 1130, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Jan Stenvang
- />Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section for Molecular Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nils Brünner
- />Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Section for Molecular Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Yves Pommier
- />National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, 37 Convent Drive, Building 37, Room 5068, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255 USA
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Li ZX, Li J, Li Y, You K, Xu H, Wang J. Novel insights into the apoptosis mechanism of DNA topoisomerase I inhibitor isoliquiritigenin on HCC tumor cell. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 464:548-53. [PMID: 26159926 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The inhibitory effect of DNA topoisomerase (Top I) by isoliquiritigenin(ISO) were investigated and their interaction mechanism was evaluated using methods including UV-vis absorption, fluorescence, coupled with molecular simulation, and using the MTT method of inhibition rate of HCC tumor cell SNU475 proliferation assay, finally, the interaction of ISO with calf thymus DNA was investigated by melting measurements and molecular docking studies. It was found that isoliquiritigenin reversibly inhibited DNA Top I in a competitive manner with the concentrations of ISO resulting in 50% activity lost (IC50) were estimated to be 0.178 ± 0.12 mM. Isoliquiritigenin exhibited a strong ability to quench the intrinsic fluorescence of Top I through a static quenching procedure. The positive values of enthalpy change and entropy change suggested that the binding of isoliquiritigenin to Top I was driven mainly by hydrophobic interactions. The molecular docking results revealed isoliquiritigenin actually interacted with the primary amino acid residues on the active site of Top I, and the detection results of fluorescence staining and the inhibitory effect on the growth of HCC SUN475 showed that isoliquiritigenin induced the apoptosis cells increased gradually. The interaction of ISO with DNA can cause the denaturation temperature to be increased, which indicated that the stabilization of the DNA helix was increased in the presence of ISO, which indicated that the results provide strong evidence for intercalative binding of ISO with DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ze-Xin Li
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, 453100, China
| | - Jian Li
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, 453100, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, 453100, China
| | - Kun You
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, 453100, China
| | - Hongwei Xu
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, 453100, China
| | - Jianguo Wang
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, 453100, China.
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22
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Sanabria-Ríos DJ, Rivera-Torres Y, Rosario J, Ríos C, Gutierrez R, Carballeira NM, Vélez C, Zayas B, Álvarez-Colón F, Ortiz-Soto G, Serrano V, Altieri-Rivera J, Ríos-Olivares E, Rodríguez JW. Synthesis of novel C5-curcuminoid-fatty acid conjugates and mechanistic investigation of their anticancer activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2015; 25:2174-80. [PMID: 25881826 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.03.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Revised: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The first synthesis of C5-curcumin-fatty acid (C5-Curc-FA) conjugates was successfully performed. Through a two-step synthetic route, 10 analogs were synthesized for a structure-activity relationship (SAR) study. It was found that C5-Curc-FA conjugates containing either decanoic acid or palmitic acid moieties were cytotoxic against colorectal adenocarcinoma cell (CCL-229) at IC50s ranging from 22.5 to 56.1μg/mL, being 5c the most active C5-Curc-FA conjugate. Our results strongly suggests that a decanoic acid moiety at the meta position in C5-Curc-FA conjugates is important for their anticancer activity effect. Possible mechanisms for the anticancer activity of C5-Curc-FA conjugates were also investigated including apoptosis induction, mitochondrial damage and caspases activation. It was shown that 5c inhibited the luminescence activity of NFκB, a key signaling molecule involved in cell apoptosis and cell proliferation, at IC50=18.2μg/mL. In addition, it was demonstrated that 5c displayed significant apoptotic effect at GI50=46.0μg/mL in colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (ATCC CCL-222), which can be explained by the significant mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and caspases 3 and 7 activation effect of 5c. Finally, it was investigated that C5-Curc-FA conjugates can affect the replication process of cancer cells, since compounds 5c, 5e, and 6c inhibited the relaxing activity of the human DNA topoisomerase I at minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) that range from 50 to 250μg/mL. Our results strongly support the hypothesis that the inhibition of both NFκB and DNA topoisomerase I by C5-Curc-FA conjugates is associated with their anticancer activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Sanabria-Ríos
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Metropolitan Campus, PO Box 191293, San Juan, PR 00919, United States.
| | - Yaritza Rivera-Torres
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Metropolitan Campus, PO Box 191293, San Juan, PR 00919, United States
| | - Joshua Rosario
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Metropolitan Campus, PO Box 191293, San Juan, PR 00919, United States
| | - Camille Ríos
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Metropolitan Campus, PO Box 191293, San Juan, PR 00919, United States
| | - Ricardo Gutierrez
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Metropolitan Campus, PO Box 191293, San Juan, PR 00919, United States
| | - Néstor M Carballeira
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, PO Box 23346, San Juan, PR 00931-3346, United States
| | - Christian Vélez
- School of Environmental Affairs, Universidad Metropolitana, PO Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928, United States
| | - Beatriz Zayas
- School of Environmental Affairs, Universidad Metropolitana, PO Box 21150, San Juan, PR 00928, United States
| | - Félix Álvarez-Colón
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, PO Box 60327, Bayamón, PR 00960, United States
| | - Gabriela Ortiz-Soto
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, PO Box 60327, Bayamón, PR 00960, United States
| | - Victor Serrano
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, PO Box 60327, Bayamón, PR 00960, United States
| | - Joanne Altieri-Rivera
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, PO Box 60327, Bayamón, PR 00960, United States
| | - Eddy Ríos-Olivares
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, PO Box 60327, Bayamón, PR 00960, United States
| | - José W Rodríguez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, PO Box 60327, Bayamón, PR 00960, United States
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23
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Liu YQ, Li WQ, Morris-Natschke SL, Qian K, Yang L, Zhu GX, Wu XB, Chen AL, Zhang SY, Nan X, Lee KH. Perspectives on biologically active camptothecin derivatives. Med Res Rev 2015; 35:753-89. [PMID: 25808858 DOI: 10.1002/med.21342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Camptothecins (CPTs) are cytotoxic natural alkaloids that specifically target DNA topoisomerase I. Research on CPTs has undergone a significant evolution from the initial discovery of CPT in the late 1960s through the study of synthetic small-molecule derivatives to investigation of macromolecular constructs and formulations. Over the past years, intensive medicinal chemistry efforts have generated numerous CPT derivatives. Three derivatives, topotecan, irinotecan, and belotecan, are currently prescribed as anticancer drugs, and several related compounds are now in clinical trials. Interest in other biological effects, besides anticancer activity, of CPTs is also growing exponentially, as indicated by the large number of publications on the subject during the last decades. Therefore, the main focus of the present review is to provide an ample but condensed overview on various biological activities of CPT derivatives, in addition to continued up-to-date coverage of anticancer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Qian Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China.,Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Biopesticide Preparation, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin'an 311300, P. R. China
| | - Wen-Qun Li
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Susan L Morris-Natschke
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599
| | - Keduo Qian
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599
| | - Liu Yang
- Environmental and Municipal Engineering School, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou, 730000, P. R. China
| | - Gao-Xiang Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Bing Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - An-Liang Chen
- Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Biopesticide Preparation, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin'an 311300, P. R. China
| | - Shao-Yong Zhang
- Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Biopesticide Preparation, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin'an 311300, P. R. China
| | - Xiang Nan
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Kuo-Hsiung Lee
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599.,Chinese Medicine Research and Development Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, 40447, Taiwan
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24
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Lee MH, Cha DS, Mamillapalli SS, Kwon YC, Koo HS. Transgene-mediated co-suppression of DNA topoisomerase-1 gene in Caenorhabditis elegans. Int J Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 5:11-20. [PMID: 24955284 PMCID: PMC4058960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Ectopic expression of multi-transgenic copies can result in reduced expression of the transgene and can induce silence of endogenous gene; this process is called as co-suppression. Using a transgene-mediated co-suppression technique, we demonstrated the biological function of DNA topoisomerase-1 (top-1) in C. elegans development. Introduction of full-length top-1 transgene sufficiently induced the co-suppression of endogenous top-1 gene, causing embryonic lethality and abnormal germline development. We also found that the co-suppression of top-1 gene affected morphogenesis, lifespan and larval growth that were not observed in top-1 (RNAi) animals. Strikingly, co-suppression effects were significantly reduced by the elimination of top-1 introns, suggesting that efficient co-suppression may require intron(s) in C. elegans. Sequence analysis revealed that the introns 1 and 2 of top-1 gene possess consensus binding sites for several transcription factors, including MAB-3, LIN-14, TTX-3/CEH-10, CEH-1, and CEH-22. Among them, we examined a genetic link between ceh-22 and top-1. The ceh-22 is partially required for the specification of distal tip cells (DTC), which functions as a stem cell niche in the C. elegans gonad. Intriguingly, top-1 (RNAi) significantly enhanced DTC loss in ceh-22 mutant gonads, indicating that top-1 may play an important role in CEH-22-mediated DTC fate specification. Therefore, our findings suggest that transgene-mediated co-suppression facilitates the silencing of the specific genes and the study of gene function in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myon-Hee Lee
- Department of Oncology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina UniversityGreenville, NC 27834, USA
- Leo W. Jenkins Cancer Center, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina UniversityGreenville, NC 27834, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Dong Seok Cha
- Department of Oncology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina UniversityGreenville, NC 27834, USA
- Department of Oriental Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Woosuk UniversityJeonbuk 565-701, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Young Chul Kwon
- Department of Oncology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina UniversityGreenville, NC 27834, USA
| | - Hyeon-Sook Koo
- Department of Biochemistry, Yonsei UniversitySeoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
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25
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Warren K, Warrilow D, Meredith L, Harrich D. Reverse Transcriptase and Cellular Factors: Regulators of HIV-1 Reverse Transcription. Viruses 2009; 1:873-94. [PMID: 21994574 PMCID: PMC3185528 DOI: 10.3390/v1030873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2009] [Revised: 11/06/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
There is ample evidence that synthesis of HIV-1 proviral DNA from the viral RNA genome during reverse transcription requires host factors. However, only a few cellular proteins have been described in detail that affect reverse transcription and interact with reverse transcriptase (RT). HIV-1 integrase is an RT binding protein and a number of IN-binding proteins including INI1, components of the Sin3a complex, and Gemin2 affect reverse transcription. In addition, recent studies implicate the cellular proteins HuR, AKAP149, and DNA topoisomerase I in reverse transcription through an interaction with RT. In this review we will consider interactions of reverse transcription complex with viral and cellular factors and how they affect the reverse transcription process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie Warren
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; E-Mails: (K.W.); (D.W.); (L.M.)
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury, NSW, Australia
| | - David Warrilow
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; E-Mails: (K.W.); (D.W.); (L.M.)
| | - Luke Meredith
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; E-Mails: (K.W.); (D.W.); (L.M.)
- Griffith Medical Research College, a joint program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, QIMR, Herston, QLD, 4006, Australia
| | - David Harrich
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; E-Mails: (K.W.); (D.W.); (L.M.)
- Griffith Medical Research College, a joint program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, QIMR, Herston, QLD, 4006, Australia
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +61-7-3845-36791; Fax: +61-7-3362-0107
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