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John U, Šupraha L, Gran-Stadniczeñko S, Bunse C, Cembella A, Eikrem W, Janouškovec J, Klemm K, Kühne N, Naustvoll L, Voss D, Wohlrab S, Edvardsen B. Spatial and biological oceanographic insights into the massive fish-killing bloom of the haptophyte Chrysochromulina leadbeateri in northern Norway. Harmful Algae 2022; 118:102287. [PMID: 36195411 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A bloom of the fish-killing haptophyte Chrysochromulina leadbeateri in northern Norway during May and June 2019 was the most harmful algal event ever recorded in the region, causing massive mortalities of farmed salmon. Accordingly, oceanographic and biodiversity aspects of the bloom were studied in unprecedented detail, based on metabarcoding and physico-chemical and biotic factors related with the dynamics and distribution of the bloom. Light- and electron-microscopical observations of nanoplankton samples from diverse locations confirmed that C. leadbeateri was dominant in the bloom and the primary cause of associated fish mortalities. Cell counts by light microscopy and flow cytometry were obtained throughout the regional bloom within and adjacent to five fjord systems. Metabarcoding sequences of the V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene from field material collected during the bloom and a cultured isolate from offshore of Tromsøy island confirmed the species identification. Sequences from three genetic markers (18S, 28S rRNA gene and ITS region) verified the close if not identical genetic similarity to C. leadbeateri from a previous massive fish-killing bloom in 1991 in northern Norway. The distribution and cell abundance of C. leadbeateri and related Chrysochromulina species in the recent incident were tracked by integrating observations from metabarcoding sequences of the V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene. Metabarcoding revealed at least 14 distinct Chrysochromulina variants, including putative cryptic species. C. leadbeateri was by far the most abundant of these species, but with high intraspecific genetic variability. Highest cell abundance of up to 2.7 × 107 cells L - 1 of C. leadbeateri was found in Balsfjorden; the high cell densities were associated with stratification near the pycnocline (at ca. 12 m depth) within the fjord. The cell abundance of C. leadbeateri showed positive correlations with temperature, negative correlation with salinity, and a slightly positive correlation with ambient phosphate and nitrate concentrations. The spatio-temporal succession of the C. leadbeateri bloom suggests independent initiation from existing pre-bloom populations in local zones, perhaps sustained and supplemented over time by northeastward advection of the bloom from the fjords.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe John
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity at the University of Oldenburg (HIFMB), Ammerländer Heersstraße 231, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany.
| | - Luka Šupraha
- Section for Aquatic Biology and Toxicology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sandra Gran-Stadniczeñko
- Section for Aquatic Biology and Toxicology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Carina Bunse
- Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity at the University of Oldenburg (HIFMB), Ammerländer Heersstraße 231, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany; ICBM: Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky-Straße 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Allan Cembella
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Wenche Eikrem
- Section for Aquatic Biology and Toxicology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Janouškovec
- Section for Aquatic Biology and Toxicology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kerstin Klemm
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nancy Kühne
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Lars Naustvoll
- Institute of Marine Research, P.O box 1871 Nordnes, NO-5817 Bergen, Norway
| | - Daniela Voss
- ICBM: Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky-Straße 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Sylke Wohlrab
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity at the University of Oldenburg (HIFMB), Ammerländer Heersstraße 231, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Bente Edvardsen
- Section for Aquatic Biology and Toxicology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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Yilimulati M, Jin J, Wang X, Wang X, Shevela D, Wu B, Wang K, Zhou L, Jia Y, Pan B, Govindjee G, Zhang S. Regulation of Photosynthesis in Bloom-Forming Cyanobacteria with the Simplest β-Diketone. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:14173-14184. [PMID: 34590827 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Selective inhibition of photosynthesis is a fundamental strategy to solve the global challenge caused by harmful cyanobacterial blooms. However, there is a lack of specificity of the currently used cyanocides, because most of them act on cyanobacteria by generating nontargeted oxidative stress. Here, for the first time, we find that the simplest β-diketone, acetylacetone, is a promising specific cyanocide, which acts on Microcystis aeruginosa through targeted binding on bound iron species in the photosynthetic electron transport chain, rather than by oxidizing the components of the photosynthetic apparatus. The targeted binding approach outperforms the general oxidation mechanism in terms of specificity and eco-safety. Given the essential role of photosynthesis in both natural and artificial systems, this finding not only provides a unique solution for the selective control of cyanobacteria but also sheds new light on the ways to modulate photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihebai Yilimulati
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiyuan Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Wang
- School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaomeng Wang
- Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, People's Republic of China
| | - Dmitry Shevela
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Biological Centre, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Bing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Wang
- Hansha Scientific Instruments Limited, Tai'an 271099, People's Republic of China
| | - Lang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunlu Jia
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Bingcai Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Govindjee Govindjee
- Department of Biochemistry, Department of Plant Biology, and the Center of Biophysics & Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Shujuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China
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Lavaud R, Durier G, Nadalini JB, Filgueira R, Comeau LA, Babarro JMF, Michaud S, Scarratt M, Tremblay R. Effects of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella on the behaviour and physiology of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis. Harmful Algae 2021; 108:102097. [PMID: 34588119 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The effects of harmful algae on bivalve physiology are complex and involve both physiological and behavioural responses. Studying those responses is essential to better describe and predict their impact on shellfish aquaculture and health risk for humans. In this study we recorded for two months the physiological response of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis from Eastern Canada to a one-week exposure to a paralytic shellfish poisoning producing dinoflagellate strain of Alexandrium catenella, isolated from the St Lawrence estuary, Canada. Mussels in a 'control' treatment were fed continuously with a non-toxic diet, while mussels in a 'starvation' treatment were fed the same non-toxic diet the first week and subsequently starved for seven weeks. Mussels in a 'toxic' treatment received A. catenella for one week before being starved until the end of the experiment. Over a two-month experiment we monitored shell and tissue growth, filtration capacity, respiration rate, byssal attachment strength, valve opening behaviour, and toxin content in tissues. Mussels fed normally on the toxic dinoflagellate and accumulated an average of 51.6 µg STXeq 100 g-1 after one week of exposure. After seven weeks of depuration, about half of the specimen showed levels around 18 µg STXeq 100 g-1. The condition index of exposed mussels ('toxic' treatment) decreased rapidly from the start as compared to mussels that received a one-week non-toxic diet ('starvation' treatment). Oxygen consumption rates increased in the 'toxic' treatment before leveling out with that of mussels from the 'starvation' treatment. Valve opening amplitude was lower in the 'toxic' treatment during and following the exposure. Average valve closure duration was higher right after the exposure, during the peak of mussel tissue intoxication. No significant change in byssal thread strength was observed through time in each treatment but less force was required to detach mussels from the 'toxic' and 'starvation' treatments. The number of byssus threads produced by mussels exposed to the toxic dinoflagellate was also lower than in the control group. These results represent advancements in our understanding of the impacts of harmful algae on bivalves and contribute to the development of mitigation measures necessary to both the safety of consumers and the sustainability of aquaculture operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Lavaud
- Institut des Sciences de la Mer de Rimouski, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, QC, Canada; Marine Program Affairs, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, United States.
| | - Guillaume Durier
- Institut des Sciences de la Mer de Rimouski, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, QC, Canada
| | - Jean-Bruno Nadalini
- Institut des Sciences de la Mer de Rimouski, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, QC, Canada; Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Quebec Region, Institut Maurice Lamontagne, Mont-Joli, QC, Canada
| | - Ramón Filgueira
- Marine Program Affairs, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Luc A Comeau
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Gulf Region Center, Moncton, NB, Canada
| | | | - Sonia Michaud
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Quebec Region, Institut Maurice Lamontagne, Mont-Joli, QC, Canada
| | - Michael Scarratt
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Quebec Region, Institut Maurice Lamontagne, Mont-Joli, QC, Canada
| | - Réjean Tremblay
- Institut des Sciences de la Mer de Rimouski, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, QC, Canada
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de la Cruz A, Logsdon R, Lye D, Guglielmi S, Rice A, Kannan MS. Harmful Algae Bloom Occurrence in Urban Ponds: Relationship of Toxin Levels with Cell Density and Species Composition. J Earth Environ Sci 2017; 25:704-726. [PMID: 31750421 PMCID: PMC6865815 DOI: 10.29011/jees-148.100048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Retention ponds constructed within urban watershed areas of high density populations are common as a result of green infrastructure applications. Several urban ponds in the Northern Kentucky, USA area were monitored for algal community (algae and cyanobacteria) from October 2012 to September 2013. Many of the harmful algal blooms observed during this study were composed primarily of the cyanobacteria genus, Microcystis. No correlations were observed between basic water quality parameters (dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, temperature, nitrate and soluble reactive phosphate) and the presence of cyanobacteria and/or microcystin cyanobacterial toxin levels. Furthermore, levels of microcystin toxins did not always coincide with high Microcystis cell counts. Harmful algal blooms in small urban ponds are common which pose risk to human and ecological health due to proximity of dense human population including pets and wild animals. Because harmful algal blooms were detected throughout the year in this study, adaptation of universal guidelines for the design, construction and maintenance of urban ponds may be necessary to protect watershed aquatic ecosystems, and lower health risks from exposure to such harmful blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armah de la Cruz
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio USA
| | - Rachael Logsdon
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY USA
| | - Dennis Lye
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio USA
| | - Stefania Guglielmi
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio USA
| | - Alexus Rice
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY USA
| | - Miriam Steinitz Kannan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY USA
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Herzi F, Jean N, Zhao H, Mounier S, Mabrouk HH, Hlaili AS. Copper and cadmium effects on growth and extracellular exudation of the marine toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella: 3D-fluorescence spectroscopy approach. Chemosphere 2013; 93:1230-1239. [PMID: 23928326 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In this study, metal contamination experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of copper and cadmium on the growth of the marine toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella and on the production of dissolved organic matter (Dissolved Organic Carbon: DOC; Fluorescent Dissolved Organic Matter: FDOM). This species was exposed to increasing concentrations of Cu(2+) (9.93 × 10(-10)-1.00 × 10(-7)M) or Cd(2+) (1.30 × 10(-8)-4.38 × 10(-7)M), to simulate polluted environments. The drastic effects were observed at pCu(2+)=7.96 (Cu(2+): 1.08 × 10(-8)M) and pCd(2+)=7.28 (Cd(2+): 5.19 × 10(-8)M), where cyst formation occurred. Lower levels of Cu(2+) (pCu(2+)>9.00) and Cd(2+) (pCd(2+)>7.28) had no effect on growth. However, when levels of Cu(2+) and Cd(2+) were beyond 10(-7)M, the growth was totally inhibited. The DOC released per cell (DOC/Cell) was different depending on the exposure time and the metal contamination, with higher DOC/Cell values in response to Cu(2+) and Cd(2+), comparatively to the control. Samples were also analyzed by 3D-fluorescence spectroscopy, using the Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC) algorithm to characterize the FDOM. The PARAFAC analytical treatment revealed four components (C1, C2, C3 and C4) that could be associated with two contributions: one, related to the biological activity; the other, linked to the decomposition of organic matter. The C1 component combined a tryptophan peak and a characteristic humic substances response, and the C2 component was considered as a tryptophan protein fluorophore. The C3 and C4 components were associated to marine organic matter production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faouzi Herzi
- Université de Carthage, Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, LCVP, 7021 Jarzouna, Bizerte, Tunisia; Université de Toulon, PROTEE, EA 3819, 83 957 La Garde, France.
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Li Y, He R, McGillicuddy DJ, Anderson DM, Keafer BA. Investigation of the 2006 Alexandrium fundyense Bloom in the Gulf of Maine: In situ Observations and Numerical Modeling. Cont Shelf Res 2009; 29:2069-2082. [PMID: 28979059 PMCID: PMC5624532 DOI: 10.1016/j.csr.2009.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In situ observations and a coupled bio-physical model were used to study the germination, initiation, and development of the Gulf of Maine (GOM) Alexandrium fundyense bloom in 2006. Hydrographic measurements and comparisons with GOM climatology indicate that 2006 was a year with normal coastal water temperature, salinity, current and river runoff conditions. A. fundyense cyst abundance in bottom sediments preceding the 2006 bloom was at a moderate level compared to other recent annual cyst survey data. We used the coupled bio-physical model to hindcast coastal circulation and A. fundyense cell concentrations. Field data including water temperature, salinity, velocity time series and surface A. fundyense cell concentration maps were applied to gauge the model's fidelity. The coupled model is capable of reproducing the hydrodynamics and the temporal and spatial distributions of A. fundyense cell concentration reasonably well. Model hindcast solutions were further used to diagnose physical and biological factors controlling the bloom dynamics. Surface wind fields modulated the bloom's horizontal and vertical distribution. The initial cyst distribution was found to be the dominant factor affecting the severity and the interannual variability of the A. fundyense bloom. Initial cyst abundance for the 2006 bloom was about 50% of that prior to the 2005 bloom. As the result, the time-averaged gulf-wide cell concentration in 2006 was also only about 60% of that in 2005. In addition, weaker alongshore currents and episodic upwelling-favorable winds in 2006 reduced the spatial extent of the bloom as compared with 2005.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yizhen Li
- Department of Maine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University
| | - Ruoying He
- Department of Maine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University
- Corresponding Author: Dr. Ruoying He, (Tel) 919-513-0249,
| | - Dennis J. McGillicuddy
- Department of Applied Ocean Physics and Engineering, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
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He R, McGillicuddy DJ. Gulf of Maine Harmful Algal Bloom in summer 2005 - Part 1: In Situ Observations of Coastal Hydrography and Circulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 113. [PMID: 28366965 DOI: 10.1029/2007jc004601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
An extensive Alexandrium fundyense bloom occurred along the coast of the Gulf of Maine in late spring and early summer, 2005. To understand the physical aspects of bloom's initiation and development, in-situ observations from both a gulf-wide ship survey and the coastal observing network were used to characterize coastal circulation and hydrography during that time period. Comparisons between these in-situ observations and their respective long term means revealed anomalous ocean conditions during May 2005: waters were warmer and fresher gulf-wide due to more surface heating and river runoff; coastal currents were at least two times stronger than their climatological means. Surface winds were also anomalous in the form of both episodic burst of northeaster storms and downwelling favorable mean condition. These factors may have favored more vigorous along-shore transport and near shore aggregation of toxic A. fundyense cells (a red tide) in 2005.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoying He
- Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University
| | - Dennis J McGillicuddy
- Department of Applied Ocean Physics and Engineering, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
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He R, McGillicuddy DJ, Keafer BA, Anderson DM. Gulf of Maine Harmful Algal Bloom in summer 2005 - Part 2: Coupled Bio-physical Numerical Modeling. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 113. [PMID: 28366964 DOI: 10.1029/2007jc004602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A coupled physical/biological modeling system was used to hindcast the 2005 Alexandrium fundyense bloom in the Gulf of Maine and investigate the relative importance of factors governing the bloom's initiation and development. The coupled system consists of a state-of-the-art, free-surface primitive equation Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) tailored for the Gulf of Maine (GOM) using a multi-nested configuration, and a population dynamics model for A. fundyense. The system was forced by realistic momentum and buoyancy fluxes, tides, river runoff, observed A. fundyense benthic cyst abundance, and climatological nutrient fields. Extensive comparisons were made between simulated (both physical and biological) fields and in-situ observations, revealing that the hindcast model is capable of reproducing the temporal evolution and spatial distribution of the 2005 bloom. Sensitivity experiments were then performed to distinguish the roles of three major factors hypothesized to contribute to the bloom: 1) the high abundance of cysts in western GOM sediments; 2) strong northeaster storms with prevailing downwelling-favorable winds; and 3) a large amount of fresh water input due to abundant rainfall and heavy snowmelt. Results suggested that the high abundance of cysts in western GOM was the primary factor of the 2005 bloom. Wind forcing was an important regulator, as episodic bursts of northeast winds caused onshore advection of offshore populations. These downwelling favorable winds accelerated the alongshore flow, resulting in transport of high cell concentrations into Massachusetts Bay. A large regional bloom would still have happened, however, even with normal or typical winds for that period. Anomalously high river runoff in 2005 resulted in stronger buoyant plumes/currents, which facilitated the transport of cell population to the western GOM. While affecting nearshore cell abundance in Massachusetts Bay, the buoyant plumes were confined near to the coast, and had limited impact on the gulf-wide bloom distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoying He
- Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University
| | - Dennis J McGillicuddy
- Department of Applied Ocean Physics and Engineering, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
| | - Bruce A Keafer
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
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