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Khoshkam Z, Aftabi Y, Stenvinkel P, Paige Lawrence B, Rezaei MH, Ichihara G, Fereidouni S. Recovery scenario and immunity in COVID-19 disease: A new strategy to predict the potential of reinfection. J Adv Res 2021; 31:49-60. [PMID: 33520309 PMCID: PMC7832464 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2020.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The recent ongoing outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), still is an unsolved problem with a growing rate of infected cases and mortality worldwide. The novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is targeting the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and mostly causes a respiratory illness. Although acquired and resistance immunity is one of the most important aspects of alleviating the trend of the current pandemic; however, there is still a big gap of knowledge regarding the infection process, immunopathogenesis, recovery, and reinfection. Aim of Review To answer the questions regarding "the potential and probability of reinfection in COVID-19 infected cases" or "the efficiency and duration of SARS-CoV-2 infection-induced immunity against reinfection" we critically evaluated the current reports on SARS-CoV-2 immunity and reinfection with special emphasis on comparative studies using animal models that generalize their finding about protection and reinfection. Also, the contribution of humoral immunity in the process of COVID-19 recovery and the role of ACE2 in virus infectivity and pathogenesis has been discussed. Furthermore, innate and cellular immunity and inflammatory responses in the disease and recovery conditions are reviewed and an overall outline of immunologic aspects of COVID-19 progression and recovery in three different stages are presented. Finally, we categorized the infected cases into four different groups based on the acquired immunity and the potential for reinfection. Key Scientific Concepts of Review In this review paper, we proposed a new strategy to predict the potential of reinfection in each identified category. This classification may help to distribute resources more meticulously to determine: who needs to be serologically tested for SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies, what percentage of the population is immune to the virus, and who needs to be vaccinated.
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Key Words
- ACE2, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- ADE, Antibody-dependent enhancement
- ARDS, Acute respiratory distress syndrome
- Ang II, Angiotensin II
- BAL, Bronchoalveolar lavage
- COVID-19
- COVID-19, Coronavirus disease 2019
- Coronavirus
- ERS, Early recovery stage
- FcR, Fc receptor
- ISGs, Interferon-stimulated genes
- Immunity
- LRS, Late recovery stage
- N, Nucleocapsid
- NAb, Neutralizing antibody
- NK, Natural killer
- PBMCs, Peripheral blood mononuclear cells
- PSO, Post symptom onset
- RBD, Receptor-binding domain
- RT-PCR, Real-time reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction
- Recovery
- Reinfection
- SARS-CoV-2
- SARS-CoV-2, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
- sACE2, Soluble ACE2
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Khoshkam
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Younes Aftabi
- Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Stenvinkel
- Division of Renal Medicine, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - B. Paige Lawrence
- Departments of Environmental Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Mehran Habibi Rezaei
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Gaku Ichihara
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Japan
- Health Management Center, Tokyo University of Science, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sasan Fereidouni
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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González FE, Gleisner A, Falcón-Beas F, Osorio F, López MN, Salazar-Onfray F. Tumor cell lysates as immunogenic sources for cancer vaccine design. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2015; 10:3261-9. [PMID: 25625929 DOI: 10.4161/21645515.2014.982996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Autologous dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) are a promising immunological tool for cancer therapy. These stimulate the antitumor response and immunological memory generation. Nevertheless, many patients remain refractory to DC approaches. Antigen (Ag) delivery to DCs is relevant to vaccine success, and antigen peptides, tumor-associated proteins, tumor cells, autologous tumor lysates, and tumor-derived mRNA have been tested as Ag sources. Recently, DCs loaded with allogeneic tumor cell lysates were used to induce a potent immunological response. This strategy provides a reproducible pool of almost all potential Ags suitable for patient use, independent of MHC haplotypes or autologous tumor tissue availability. However, optimizing autologous tumor cell lysate preparation is crucial to enhancing efficacy. This review considers the role of cancer cell-derived lysates as a relevant source of antigens and as an activating factor for ex vivo therapeutic DCs capable of responding to neoplastic cells. These promising therapies are associated with the prolonged survival of advanced cancer patients.
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Key Words
- AM, Cytokine-activated monocytes
- Ags, Antigens
- CDAMs, Cell death-associated molecules
- CRT, Calreticulin
- CTLs, Cytotoxic T lymphocytes
- DAMPs
- DAMPs, Damage-associated molecular patterns
- DCs, Dendritic cells
- DTH, Delayed-type IV hypersensitivity
- GM-CSF, Granulocyte and macrophage colony stimulating factor
- HMGB1, High-mobility group box 1 protein
- HSPs, Heat shock proteins
- ICD, Immunogenic cell death
- MAAs, Melanoma-associated antigens
- MHC, Major histocompatibility complex
- MM, Malignant melanoma
- NKT, Natural killer T cell
- PAMPs, Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PBMCs, Peripheral blood mononuclear cells
- PCCL, Prostate cancer cell lysate
- PD1, Programmed cell death protein 1
- PRRs, Pattern recognition receptors
- PSA, Prostate specific antigen
- RAGE, Receptor for advanced glycation endproducts
- SNPs, Single nucleotide polymorphisms
- TAAs, Tumor-associated antigens
- TAPCells, Tumor antigen presenting cells
- TCRs, T cell receptors
- TLRs, Toll-like receptors
- TNF, Tumor necrosis factor
- TRIMEL, Allogeneic melanoma cell lysate
- TRIPRO, Allogeneic prostate cell lysate
- Toll-like receptors
- Tregs, Regulatory T lymphocytes
- cancer immunotherapy
- dendritic cells
- immunogenic cell death
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Affiliation(s)
- Fermín E González
- a Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy; Institute of Biomedical Sciences; Faculty of Medicine ; University of Chile ; Santiago , Chile
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Telesford KM, Yan W, Ochoa-Reparaz J, Pant A, Kircher C, Christy MA, Begum-Haque S, Kasper DL, Kasper LH. A commensal symbiotic factor derived from Bacteroides fragilis promotes human CD39(+)Foxp3(+) T cells and Treg function. Gut Microbes 2015; 6:234-42. [PMID: 26230152 PMCID: PMC4615798 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2015.1056973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Polysaccharide A (PSA) derived from the human commensal Bacteroides fragilis is a symbiosis factor that stimulates immunologic development within mammalian hosts. PSA rebalances skewed systemic T helper responses and promotes T regulatory cells (Tregs). However, PSA-mediated induction of Foxp3 in humans has not been reported. In mice, PSA-generated Foxp3(+) Tregs dampen Th17 activity thereby facilitating bacterial intestinal colonization while the increased presence and function of these regulatory cells may guard against pathological organ-specific inflammation in hosts. We herein demonstrate that PSA induces expression of Foxp3 along with CD39 among naïve CD4 T cells in vitro while promoting IL-10 secretion. PSA-activated dendritic cells are essential for the mediation of this regulatory response. When cultured with isolated Foxp3(+) Tregs, PSA enriched Foxp3 expression, enhanced the frequency of CD39(+)HLA-DR(+) cells, and increased suppressive function as measured by decreased TNFα expression by LPS-stimulated monocytes. Our findings are the first to demonstrate in vitro induction of human CD4(+)Foxp3(+) T cells and enhanced suppressive function of circulating Foxp3(+) Tregs by a human commensal bacterial symbiotic factor. Use of PSA for the treatment of human autoimmune diseases, in particular multiple sclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease, may represent a new paradigm in the approach to treating autoimmune disease.
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Key Words
- B. fragilis, Bacteroides fragilis
- Bacteroides fragilis
- DC, Dendritic cell
- Foxp3
- GF, Germ Free
- MS, Multiple sclerosis
- NCD4, Naïve CD4
- PBMCs, Peripheral blood mononuclear cells
- PSA, Polysaccharide A
- SPF, Specific pathogen free
- Sp1, Streptococcus pneumoniae polysaccharide type 1
- T regulatory cells
- Treg, T regulatory cell
- ZPS, Zwitterionic polysaccharide.
- autoimmunity
- commensal microbiota
- dendritic cell
- ectonuclease
- multiple sclerosis
- pDC, Plasmacytoid dendritic cell
- zwitterionic polysaccharide
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiel M Telesford
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA,Correspondence to: Kiel M Telesford;
| | - Wang Yan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA
| | - Javier Ochoa-Reparaz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA
| | - Anudeep Pant
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA
| | - Christopher Kircher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA
| | - Marc A Christy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA
| | - Sakhina Begum-Haque
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA
| | - Dennis L Kasper
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology; Harvard Medical School; Boston, MA USA
| | - Lloyd H Kasper
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Geisel School of Medicine; Dartmouth College; Hanover, NH USA
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Ruggiero A, De Spiegelaere W, Cozzi-Lepri A, Kiselinova M, Pollakis G, Beloukas A, Vandekerckhove L, Strain M, Richman D, Phillips A, Geretti AM. During Stably Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy Integrated HIV-1 DNA Load in Peripheral Blood is Associated with the Frequency of CD8 Cells Expressing HLA-DR/DP/DQ. EBioMedicine 2015; 2:1153-9. [PMID: 26498496 PMCID: PMC4588402 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Characterising the correlates of HIV persistence improves understanding of disease pathogenesis and guides the design of curative strategies. This study investigated factors associated with integrated HIV-1 DNA load during consistently suppressive first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART). Method Total, integrated, and 2-long terminal repeats (LTR) circular HIV-1 DNA, residual plasma HIV-1 RNA, T-cell activation markers, and soluble CD14 (sCD14) were measured in peripheral blood of 50 patients that had received 1–14 years of efavirenz-based or nevirapine-based therapy. Results Integrated HIV-1 DNA load (per 106 peripheral blood mononuclear cells) was median 1.9 log10 copies (interquartile range 1.7–2.2) and showed a mean difference of 0.2 log10 copies per 10 years of suppressive ART (95% confidence interval − 0.2, 0.6; p = 0.28). It was positively correlated with total HIV-1 DNA load and frequency of CD8+HLA-DR/DP/DQ+ cells, and was also higher in subjects with higher sCD14 levels, but showed no correlation with levels of 2-LTR circular HIV-1 DNA and residual plasma HIV-1 RNA, or the frequency of CD4+CD38+ and CD8+CD38+ cells. Adjusting for pre-ART viral load, duration of suppressive ART, CD4 cell counts, residual plasma HIV-1 RNA levels, and sCD14 levels, integrated HIV-1 DNA load was mean 0.5 log10 copies higher for each 50% higher frequency of CD8+HLA-DR/DP/DQ+ cells (95% confidence interval 0.2, 0.9; p = 0.01). Conclusions The observed positive association between integrated HIV-1 DNA load and frequency of CD8+DR/DP/DQ+ cells indicates that a close correlation between HIV persistence and immune activation continues during consistently suppressive therapy. The inducers of the distinct activation profile warrant further investigation. Data from a homogenously treated population with consistent virological suppression Integrated HIV-1 DNA load did not vary significantly by duration of therapy Integrated HIV-1 DNA load was not associated with markers of recent virus replication Integrated HIV-1 DNA load and CD8+HLA-DR/DP/DQ+ frequency were positively associated Subjects with top quartile integrated HIV-1 DNA load showed high sCD14 levels
Integrated HIV-1 DNA load remains constant in the peripheral blood of individuals receiving long-term suppressive antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, the mechanisms preventing decay of the reservoir remain unclear. We studied a cross-sectional population, defined by the duration of suppressive ART. Integrated HIV-1 DNA load did not differ significantly according to the duration of suppressive ART, and showed no association with direct or indirect markers of ongoing virus replication. Rather, there was an independent, positive association between integrated HIV-1 DNA load and the frequency of CD8 cells expressing the activation marker HLA-DR/DP/DQ. These cells appear to have important regulatory and effector function. Our findings add to growing evidence that immune activation sustains the HIV-1 reservoir during long-term suppressive ART.
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Key Words
- 2-LTR, 2-long terminal repeats
- ART, Anti-retroviral therapy
- Activation
- CMV, cytomegalovirus virus
- CRN, Clinical Research Network
- EBV, Epstein-Bar virus
- ELISA, enzyme-linked immune-enzymatic assay
- HIC, HIV-1 controllers
- HIV-1 VL, HIV-1 viral load
- HIV-1, Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1
- HLA, Human Leukocyte Antigen
- Integration
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- NIHR, National Institute for Health Research
- NNRTI, Non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors
- NRTI, nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors
- PBMCs, Peripheral blood mononuclear cells
- PCR, Polymerase chain reaction
- PFA, paraformaldehyde
- Persistence
- Reservoir
- Suppression
- VLS, Viral Load Suppression
- WHO, World Health Organisation
- sCD14, soluble CD14
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Ruggiero
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology (CIMI), Institute of Infection and Global Health (IGH), University of Liverpool, 8 West Derby Street, Liverpool L697BE, United Kingdom
| | - Ward De Spiegelaere
- HIV Translational Research Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Ghent University and University Hospital Ghent, De Pintelaan 1859000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alessandro Cozzi-Lepri
- Department of Infection and Population Health, University College London, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW32PF, United Kingdom
| | - Maja Kiselinova
- HIV Translational Research Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Ghent University and University Hospital Ghent, De Pintelaan 1859000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Georgios Pollakis
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology (CIMI), Institute of Infection and Global Health (IGH), University of Liverpool, 8 West Derby Street, Liverpool L697BE, United Kingdom
| | - Apostolos Beloukas
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology (CIMI), Institute of Infection and Global Health (IGH), University of Liverpool, 8 West Derby Street, Liverpool L697BE, United Kingdom
| | - Linos Vandekerckhove
- HIV Translational Research Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Ghent University and University Hospital Ghent, De Pintelaan 1859000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Matthew Strain
- VA San Diego Healthcare System and Center for AIDS Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Douglas Richman
- VA San Diego Healthcare System and Center for AIDS Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Andrew Phillips
- Department of Infection and Population Health, University College London, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW32PF, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Maria Geretti
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology (CIMI), Institute of Infection and Global Health (IGH), University of Liverpool, 8 West Derby Street, Liverpool L697BE, United Kingdom
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