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Núñez-Vázquez EJ, Poot-Delgado CA, Turner AD, Hernández-Sandoval FE, Okolodkov YB, Fernández-Herrera LJ, Bustillos-Guzmán JJ. Paralytic Shellfish Toxins of Pyrodinium bahamense (Dinophyceae) in the Southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110760. [PMID: 36356010 PMCID: PMC9694361 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In September and November 2016, eight marine sampling sites along the coast of the southeastern Gulf of Mexico were monitored for the presence of lipophilic and hydrophilic toxins. Water temperature, salinity, hydrogen potential, dissolved oxygen saturation, inorganic nutrients and phytoplankton abundance were also determined. Two samples filtered through glass fiber filters were used for the extraction and analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) by lateral flow immunochromatography (IFL), HPLC with post-column oxidation and fluorescent detection (FLD) and UHPLC coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Elevated nutrient contents were associated with the sites of rainwater discharge or those near anthropogenic activities. A predominance of the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense was found with abundances of up to 104 cells L-1. Identification of the dinoflagellate was corroborated by light and scanning electron microscopy. Samples for toxins were positive by IFL, and the analogs NeoSTX and STX were identified and quantified by HPLC-FLD and UHPLC-MS/MS, with a total PST concentration of 6.5 pg cell-1. This study is the first report that confirms the presence of PSTs in P. bahamense in Mexican waters of the Gulf of Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick J. Núñez-Vázquez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), Apdo. Postal 128, La Paz 23000, Mexico
- Investigación para la Conservación y el Desarrollo (INCODE), Nayarit 1325 A. Col. Las Garzas, La Paz 23079, Mexico
- Correspondence: (E.J.N.-V.); (C.A.P.-D.)
| | - Carlos A. Poot-Delgado
- Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Champotón, Campeche (TECNM-ITESCHAM), Carretera Champotón, Isla Aguada Km 2, Col. El Arenal, Champotón 4400, Mexico
- Correspondence: (E.J.N.-V.); (C.A.P.-D.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Food Safety Group, Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK
| | | | - Yuri B. Okolodkov
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Pesquerías (ICIMAP-UV), Universidad Veracruzana, Calle Mar Mediterráneo Núm. 314, Fracc. Costa Verde, Boca del Río 9429, Mexico
| | | | - José J. Bustillos-Guzmán
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), Apdo. Postal 128, La Paz 23000, Mexico
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Subong BJJ, Malto ZBL, Lluisma AO, Azanza RV, Salvador-Reyes LA. Biochemical Mapping of Pyrodinium bahamense Unveils Molecular Underpinnings behind Organismal Processes. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:13332. [PMID: 34948131 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates from the harmful algal bloom (HAB)-causing organism Pyrodinium bahamense were characterized to obtain insights into the biochemical processes in this environmentally relevant dinoflagellate. Shotgun proteomics using label-free quantitation followed by proteome mapping using the P. bahamense transcriptome and translated protein databases of Marinovum algicola, Alexandrium sp., Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, and Symbiodinium kawagutii for annotation enabled the characterization of the proteins in P. bahamense. The highest number of annotated hits were obtained from M. algicola and highlighted the contribution of microorganisms associated with P. bahamense. Proteins involved in dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) degradation such as propionyl CoA synthethase and acryloyl-CoA reductase were identified, suggesting the DMSP cleavage pathway as the preferred route in this dinoflagellate. Most of the annotated proteins were involved in amino acid biosynthesis and carbohydrate degradation and metabolism, indicating the active roles of these molecules in the vegetative stage of P. bahamense. This characterization provides baseline information on the cellular machinery and the molecular basis of the ecophysiology of P. bahamense.
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Lopez CB, Tilney CL, Muhlbach E, Bouchard JN, Villac MC, Henschen KL, Markley LR, Abbe SK, Shankar S, Shea C, Flewelling L, Garrett M, Badylak S, Phlips EJ, Hall LM, Lasi MA, Parks A, Paperno R, Adams DH, Edwards DD, Schneider JE, Wald KB, Biddle AR, Landers SL, Hubbard KA. High-resolution Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Harmful Algae in the Indian River Lagoon (Florida)-A Case Study of Aureoumbra lagunensis, Pyrodinium bahamense, and Pseudo- nitzschia. Front Mar Sci 2021; 8:769877. [PMID: 37065006 PMCID: PMC10104561 DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2021.769877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The Indian River Lagoon (IRL), located on the east coast of Florida, is a complex estuarine ecosystem that is negatively affected by recurring harmful algal blooms (HABs) from distinct taxonomic/functional groups. Enhanced monitoring was established to facilitate rapid quantification of three recurrent bloom taxa, Aureoumbra lagunensis, Pyrodinium bahamense, and Pseudo-nitzschia spp., and included corroborating techniques to improve the identification of small-celled nanoplankton (<10 μm in diameter). Identification and enumeration of these target taxa were conducted during 2015-2020 using a combination of light microscopy and species-specific approaches, specifically immunofluorescence flow cytometry as well as a newly developed qPCR assay for A. lagunensis presented here for the first time. An annual bloom index (ABI) was established for each taxon based on occurrence and abundance data. Blooms of A. lagunensis (>2×108 cells L-1) were observed in all six years sampled and across multiple seasons. In contrast, abundance of P. bahamense, largely driven by the annual temperature cycle that moderates life cycle transitions and growth, displayed a strong seasonal pattern with blooms (105-107 cells L-1) generally developing in early summer and subsiding in autumn. However, P. bahamense bloom development was delayed and abundance was significantly lower in years and locations with sustained A. lagunensis blooms. Pseudo-nitzschia spp. were broadly distributed with sporadic bloom concentrations (reaching 107 cells L-1), but with minimal concentrations of the toxin domoic acid detected (<0.02 μg L-1). In summer 2020, multiple monitoring tools characterized a novel nano-cyanobacterium bloom (reaching 109 cells L-1) that coincided with a decline in A. lagunensis and persisted into autumn. Statistical and time-series analyses of this spatiotemporally intensive dataset highlight prominent patterns in variability for some taxa, but also identifies challenges of characterizing mechanisms underlying more episodic yet persistent events. Nevertheless, the intersect of temperature and salinity as environmental proxies proved to be informative in delineating niche partitioning, not only in the case of taxa with long-standing data sets but also for seemingly unprecedented blooms of novel nanoplanktonic taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cary B Lopez
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Charles L Tilney
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Eric Muhlbach
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Josée N Bouchard
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Maria Célia Villac
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Karen L Henschen
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Laura R Markley
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Stephanie Keller Abbe
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Sugandha Shankar
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Colin Shea
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Leanne Flewelling
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Matthew Garrett
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
| | - Susan Badylak
- Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Program, University of Florida, 7922 NW 71st Street, Gainesville, FL 32653, United States
| | - Edward J Phlips
- Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Program, University of Florida, 7922 NW 71st Street, Gainesville, FL 32653, United States
| | - Lauren M Hall
- St. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD), 525 Community College Parkway, Palm Bay, FL 32909, United States
| | - Margaret A Lasi
- St. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD), PO Box 1429, Palatka, FL 32178, United States
| | - Ashley Parks
- St. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD), PO Box 1429, Palatka, FL 32178, United States
| | - Richard Paperno
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), Indian River Field Lab, 1220 Prospect Ave., # 285, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Douglas H Adams
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), Indian River Field Lab, 1220 Prospect Ave., # 285, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Dwayne D Edwards
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), Indian River Field Lab, 1220 Prospect Ave., # 285, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Jacob E Schneider
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), Indian River Field Lab, 1220 Prospect Ave., # 285, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Kyle B Wald
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), Indian River Field Lab, 1220 Prospect Ave., # 285, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Autumn R Biddle
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), Indian River Field Lab, 1220 Prospect Ave., # 285, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Shawna L Landers
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), Indian River Field Lab, 1220 Prospect Ave., # 285, Melbourne, FL 32901, United States
| | - Katherine A Hubbard
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (FWC-FWRI), 100 8 Ave. SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
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Cusick K, Duran G. sxtA4+ and sxtA4- Genotypes Occur Together within Natural Pyrodinium bahamense Sub-Populations from the Western Atlantic. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9061128. [PMID: 34071086 PMCID: PMC8224543 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) is a secondary metabolite and potent neurotoxin produced by several genera of harmful algal bloom (HAB) marine dinoflagellates. The basis for variability in STX production within natural bloom populations is undefined as both toxic and non-toxic strains (of the same species) have been isolated from the same geographic locations. Pyrodinium bahamense is a STX-producing bioluminescent dinoflagellate that blooms along the east coast of Florida as well as the bioluminescent bays in Puerto Rico (PR), though no toxicity reports exist for PR populations. The core genes in the dinoflagellate STX biosynthetic pathway have been identified, and the sxtA4 gene is essential for toxin production. Using sxtA4 as a molecular proxy for the genetic capacity of STX production, we examined sxtA4+ and sxtA4- genotype frequency at the single cell level in P. bahamense populations from different locations in the Indian River Lagoon (IRL), FL, and Mosquito Bay (MB), a bioluminescent bay in PR. Multiplex PCR was performed on individual cells with Pyrodinium-specific primers targeting the 18S rRNA gene and sxtA4. The results reveal that within discrete natural populations of P. bahamense, both sxtA4+ and sxtA4- genotypes occur, and the sxtA4+ genotype dominates. In the IRL, the frequency of the sxtA4+ genotype ranged from ca. 80–100%. In MB, sxtA4+ genotype frequency ranged from ca 40–66%. To assess the extent of sxtA4 variation within individual cells, sxtA4 amplicons from single cells representative of the different sampling sites were cloned and sequenced. Overall, two variants were consistently obtained, one of which is likely a pseudogene based on alignment with cDNA sequences. These are the first data demonstrating the existence of both genotypes in natural P. bahamense sub-populations, as well as sxtA4 presence in P. bahamense from PR. These results provide insights on underlying genetic factors influencing the potential for toxin variability among natural sub-populations of HAB species and highlight the need to study the genetic diversity within HAB sub-populations at a fine level in order to identify the molecular mechanisms driving HAB evolution.
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Likumahua S, Sangiorgi F, de Boer MK, Tatipatta WM, Pelasula DD, Polnaya D, Hehuwat J, Siahaya DM, Buma AGJ. Dinoflagellate cyst distribution in surface sediments of Ambon Bay (eastern Indonesia): Environmental conditions and harmful blooms. Mar Pollut Bull 2021; 166:112269. [PMID: 33752158 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The present study aimed to document dinocyst ecological preferences in Ambon Bay, Eastern Indonesia, and to investigate if the bay sediments serve as a seedbank for toxic bloom events. To this end, dinocyst and geochemical analyses of surface sediment samples were performed, along with physicochemical water column parameters. Twentythree dinocyst species were identified, and high dinocyst concentrations (up to ~12,000 cysts g-1 dry sediment) were found in the inner bay. Environmental factors such as surface water temperature and salinity generally played an important role in dinocyst distribution. The concentration of Polysphaeridium zoharyi cysts showed a strong positive correlation with phosphorus. A statistically significant correlation was also found with the concentration of other autotrophic dinocysts in the sediments, and an inverse correlation was observed with the sediment C/N ratio. Cysts may serve as seedbanks for Pyrodinium bahamense blooms in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sem Likumahua
- Department of Ocean Ecosystems, Energy and Sustainability Research Institute Groningen, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747AG Groningen, the Netherlands; Centre for Deep Sea Research-LIPI, Jl. Y. Syaranamual Guru-guru Poka, Ambon, Indonesia.
| | - Francesca Sangiorgi
- Department of Earth Sciences, Marine Palynology and Paleoceanography, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8A, 3584CB Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - M Karin de Boer
- Department of Ocean Ecosystems, Energy and Sustainability Research Institute Groningen, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747AG Groningen, the Netherlands; Beta Science Shop, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 6, 9747AG Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Willem M Tatipatta
- Centre for Deep Sea Research-LIPI, Jl. Y. Syaranamual Guru-guru Poka, Ambon, Indonesia
| | - Daniel D Pelasula
- Centre for Deep Sea Research-LIPI, Jl. Y. Syaranamual Guru-guru Poka, Ambon, Indonesia
| | - Dominggus Polnaya
- Centre for Deep Sea Research-LIPI, Jl. Y. Syaranamual Guru-guru Poka, Ambon, Indonesia
| | - Jance Hehuwat
- Centre for Deep Sea Research-LIPI, Jl. Y. Syaranamual Guru-guru Poka, Ambon, Indonesia
| | - Donna M Siahaya
- Environmental Agency of North Halmahera District, Jl. Kawasan pemerintahan, Tobelo-Halmahera Utara 97762, Indonesia
| | - Anita G J Buma
- Department of Ocean Ecosystems, Energy and Sustainability Research Institute Groningen, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747AG Groningen, the Netherlands
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Yñiguez AT, Maister J, Villanoy CL, Deauna JD, Peñaflor E, Almo A, David LT, Benico GA, Hibay E, Mora I, Arcamo S, Relox J, Azanza RV. Insights into the dynamics of harmful algal blooms in a tropical estuary through an integrated hydrodynamic-Pyrodinium-shellfish model. Harmful Algae 2018; 80:1-14. [PMID: 30502802 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to temperate Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs), knowledge on the mechanisms driving tropical HABs are less well studied. The interaction of a seasonal temperature window, cysts (for certain species) and large-scale transport are some of the key processes in temperate HABs. In the Philippines, HABs occur not along long open coastlines, but in embayments that are highly influenced by run-off and stratification. These embayments are typically also the sites of cultured or wild harvest shellfish and other aquaculture activities. Sorsogon Bay in the northeastern Philippines has experienced prolonged shellfish-harvesting bans due to blooms by Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum severely affecting the fisheries industry in this area, as well as leading to Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning illnesses and fatalities. A novel integrated model was developed that mechanistically captures the interactions between hydrodynamic conditions, nutrients, the life history (cells and cysts) of Pyrodinium, as well as the cultured shellfish within the bay and their ensuing toxicities due to ingestion of toxic Pyrodinium cells and cysts. This is the second model developed for HABs in the Philippines, and the first to integrate different components of Pyrodinium bloom dynamics. The model is modularly composed of a watershed nutrient and diffusion model, a 3D hydrodynamic model, a Pyrodinium population model and a shellfish toxin model. It was able to capture the observed temporal variations of Pyrodinium and shellfish toxicity. It was also able to represent some aspects of the spatial distribution in Sorsogon Bay though there were discrepancies. To explore the dynamics of blooms, the linkages between the bloom and decline of the Pyrodinium population with shellfish toxicity as affected by temperature, salinity and nutrients were investigated. Comparisons with field results showed the seasonality of blooms in Sorsogon Bay is driven by increased rainfall. The timing of these conditions is important in facilitating Pyrodinium excystment and reproduction. Model results showed as well the potential significance of shellfish grazing and dinoflagellate cell mortality in influencing the decline of the bloom, and toxicity levels. This approach is promising in helping to understand mechanisms for HABs more holistically, and the model can be further improved to provide more precise quantitative information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aletta T Yñiguez
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
| | - Jennifer Maister
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Cesar L Villanoy
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | | | - Eileen Peñaflor
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Aldwin Almo
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Laura T David
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Garry A Benico
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Ellen Hibay
- Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Region V, San Agustin Pili, Camarines Sur, Philippines
| | - Irmi Mora
- Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Region V, San Agustin Pili, Camarines Sur, Philippines
| | - Sandra Arcamo
- Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Main, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Jun Relox
- Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Main, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Rhodora V Azanza
- Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
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Banguera-Hinestroza E, Eikrem W, Mansour H, Solberg I, Cúrdia J, Holtermann K, Edvardsen B, Kaartvedt S. Seasonality and toxin production of Pyrodinium bahamense in a Red Sea lagoon. Harmful Algae 2016; 55:163-171. [PMID: 28073529 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 02/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms of the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense have caused human and economic losses in the last decades. This study, for the first time, documents a bloom of P. bahamense in the Red Sea. The alga was recurrently present in a semi-enclosed lagoon throughout nearly 2 years of observations. The highest cell densities (104-105cellsL-1) were recorded from September to beginning of December at temperatures and salinities of ∼26-32°C and ∼41, respectively. The peak of the bloom was recorded mid-November, before a sharp decrease in cell numbers at the end of December. Minimum concentrations in summer were at ∼103cellsL-1. A saxitoxin ELISA immunoassay of cultures and water samples confirmed the toxicity of the strain found in the Red Sea. Moreover, a gene expression analysis of the saxitoxin gene domain SxtA4 showed that transcript production peaked at the culmination of the bloom, suggesting a relation between transcript production, sudden cells increment-decline, and environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Banguera-Hinestroza
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - W Eikrem
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P. O. Box. 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway; Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Gaustadallèen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - H Mansour
- Translational Genomics Research Group, OLMAN-RL, FPN, Mohamed 1st University, Oujda 60000, Morocco
| | - I Solberg
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - J Cúrdia
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - K Holtermann
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - B Edvardsen
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P. O. Box. 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - S Kaartvedt
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia; Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P. O. Box. 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
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