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Shimizu T, Onuki M, Suzuki S, Hirai S, Yokoyama E, Matsumoto A, Hamabata T. Enhanced production of Shiga toxin 1 in enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli by oxygen. Microbiology (Reading) 2021; 167. [PMID: 34951398 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) produces Shiga toxin 1 (Stx1) and Shiga toxin 2 (Stx2). Although stx1 and stx2 were found within the late operons of the Stx-encoding phages (Stx-phages), stx1 could mainly be transcribed from the stx1 promoter (P Stx1), which represents the functional operator-binding site (Fur box) for the transcriptional regulator Fur (ferric uptake regulator), upstream of stx1. In this study, we found that the production of Stx1 by EHEC was affected by oxygen concentration. Increased Stx1 production in the presence of oxygen is dependent on Fur, which is an Fe2+-responsive transcription factor. The intracellular Fe2+ pool was lower under microaerobic conditions than under anaerobic conditions, suggesting that lower Fe2+ availability drove the formation of less Fe2+-Fur, less DNA binding to the P Stx1 region, and an increase in Stx1 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Shimizu
- Departments of Molecular Infectiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
| | - Manami Onuki
- Departments of Molecular Infectiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
| | - Shin Suzuki
- Departments of Molecular Infectiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
| | - Shinichiro Hirai
- Department of Infectious Disease Risk Management Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashi-murayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Eiji Yokoyama
- Division of Bacteriology, Chiba Prefectural Institute of Public Health, 666-2 Nitona, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8715, Japan
| | - Akio Matsumoto
- Department of Aging Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Toho University, 5-21-16 Omori-Nishi, Ota-ku, Tokyo, 143-8540, Japan
| | - Takashi Hamabata
- Department of Infectious Disease, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8655, Japan
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Yuan X, Yu J, Gerber G, Chaturvedi S, Cole M, Chen H, Metjian A, Sperati CJ, Braunstein EM, Brodsky RA. Ex vivo assays to detect complement activation in complementopathies. Clin Immunol 2020; 221:108616. [PMID: 33148511 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2020.108616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In complement-driven thrombotic microangiopathies, failure to regulate complement activation leads to end-organ damage. The modified Ham (mHam) test measures complement-mediated killing of a nucleated cell in vitro but lacks a confirmatory assay and reliable positive controls. We demonstrate that C5b-9 accumulation on the surface of TF1 PIGAnull cells correlates with cell killing in the mHam. We also show that Sialidase treatment of cells or addition of Shiga toxin 1 to human serum serve as a more reliable positive control for the mHam than cobra venom factor or lipopolysaccharide. Simultaneously performing the mHam and measuring C5b-9 accumulation either in GVB++ or GVB0 MgEGTA buffer with the addition of complement pathway specific inhibitors (anti-C5 antibody or a factor D inhibitor, ACH-145951) can be used to localize defects in complement regulation. As more targeted complement inhibitors become available, these assays may aid in the selection of personalized treatments for patients with complement-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Yuan
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jia Yu
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Gloria Gerber
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Shruti Chaturvedi
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michael Cole
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hang Chen
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ara Metjian
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - C John Sperati
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Evan M Braunstein
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Robert A Brodsky
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Volokhina EB, Feitz WJC, Elders LM, van der Velden TJAM, van de Kar NCAJ, van den Heuvel LPWJ. Shiga Toxin Selectively Upregulates Expression of Syndecan-4 and Adhesion Molecule ICAM-1 in Human Glomerular Microvascular Endothelium. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E435. [PMID: 32635212 PMCID: PMC7405002 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) is a severe renal disease that is often preceded by infection with Shiga toxin (Stx)-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). The exact mechanism of Stx-mediated inflammation on human glomerular microvascular endothelial cells (HGMVECs) during HUS is still not well understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of Stx1 on the gene expression of proteins involved in leucocyte-mediated and complement-mediated inflammation. Our results showed that Stx1 enhances the mRNA and protein expression of heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) syndecan-4 in HGMVECs pre-stimulated with tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). CD44 was upregulated on mRNA but not on protein level; no effect on the mRNA expression of other tested HSPGs glypican-1 and betaglycan was observed. Furthermore, Stx1 upregulated the mRNA, cell surface expression, and supernatant levels of the intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in HGMVECs. Interestingly, no effect on the protein levels of alternative pathway (AP) components was observed, although C3 mRNA was upregulated. All observed effects were much stronger in HGMVECs than in human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVECs), a common model cell type used in endothelial studies. Our results provide new insights into the role of Stx1 in the pathogenesis of HUS. Possibilities to target the overexpression of syndecan-4 and ICAM-1 for STEC-HUS therapy should be investigated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena B. Volokhina
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (W.J.C.F.); (L.M.E.); (T.J.A.M.v.d.V.); (N.C.A.J.v.d.K.); (L.P.W.J.v.d.H.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter J. C. Feitz
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (W.J.C.F.); (L.M.E.); (T.J.A.M.v.d.V.); (N.C.A.J.v.d.K.); (L.P.W.J.v.d.H.)
| | - Lonneke M. Elders
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (W.J.C.F.); (L.M.E.); (T.J.A.M.v.d.V.); (N.C.A.J.v.d.K.); (L.P.W.J.v.d.H.)
| | - Thea J. A. M. van der Velden
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (W.J.C.F.); (L.M.E.); (T.J.A.M.v.d.V.); (N.C.A.J.v.d.K.); (L.P.W.J.v.d.H.)
| | - Nicole C. A. J. van de Kar
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (W.J.C.F.); (L.M.E.); (T.J.A.M.v.d.V.); (N.C.A.J.v.d.K.); (L.P.W.J.v.d.H.)
| | - Lambertus P. W. J. van den Heuvel
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (W.J.C.F.); (L.M.E.); (T.J.A.M.v.d.V.); (N.C.A.J.v.d.K.); (L.P.W.J.v.d.H.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Pediatrics, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Li XP, Tumer NE. Differences in Ribosome Binding and Sarcin/Ricin Loop Depurination by Shiga and Ricin Holotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9040133. [PMID: 28398250 PMCID: PMC5408207 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9040133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Both ricin and Shiga holotoxins display no ribosomal activity in their native forms and need to be activated to inhibit translation in a cell-free translation inhibition assay. This is because the ribosome binding site of the ricin A chain (RTA) is blocked by the B subunit in ricin holotoxin. However, it is not clear why Shiga toxin 1 (Stx1) or Shiga toxin 2 (Stx2) holotoxin is not active in a cell-free system. Here, we compare the ribosome binding and depurination activity of Stx1 and Stx2 holotoxins with the A1 subunits of Stx1 and Stx2 using either the ribosome or a 10-mer RNA mimic of the sarcin/ricin loop as substrates. Our results demonstrate that the active sites of Stx1 and Stx2 holotoxins are blocked by the A2 chain and the B subunit, while the ribosome binding sites are exposed to the solvent. Unlike ricin, which is enzymatically active, but cannot interact with the ribosome, Stx1 and Stx2 holotoxins are enzymatically inactive but can interact with the ribosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ping Li
- Department of Plant Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
| | - Nilgun E Tumer
- Department of Plant Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
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Neher S, Hazarika AK, Barkalita LM, Borah P, Bora DP, Sharma RK. Isolation and characterization of Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli of animal and bird origin by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Vet World 2016; 9:123-7. [PMID: 27051196 PMCID: PMC4819360 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2016.123-127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM The purpose of this study was to determine the virulence genes and serotype of Shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains isolated from animals and birds. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 226 different samples viz., fecal, intestinal content, rectal swab and heart blood were collected from different clinically affected/healthy animals and birds and were streaked on McConkeys' lactose agar and eosin methylene blue agar for isolation of E. coli, confirmed by staining characteristics and biochemical tests. By polymerase chain reaction (PCR) all the E. coli isolates were screened for certain virulence genes, viz., Shiga toxin 1 (stx1), stx2 and eae and enterohemolytic (Ehly) phenotype was observed in washed sheep blood agar plate. All the isolated E. coli strains were forwarded to the National Salmonella and Escherichia Centre, Central Research Institute, Kasauli (Himachal Pradesh) for serotyping. RESULTS Out of 226 samples 138 yielded E. coli. All the isolates were screened for molecular detection of different virulent genes, viz. stx1, stx2 and eae, based on which 36 (26.08%) were identified as STEC. Among those STEC isolates, 15 (41.67%), 14 (38.89%), 1 (2.78%) exhibited eae, stx2, stx1 alone, respectively, whereas 4 (11.11%) and 2 (5.56%) carried both stx1 and stx2, stx2 and eae, respectively. Among the STEC isolates 22 were belonged to 15 different sero-groups, viz., O2, O20, O22, O25, O43, O60, O69, O90, O91, O95, O106, O118, O130, O162 and O170 and others were untypable. Ehly phenotype was observed in 10 (27.78%) the STEC isolates. CONCLUSION The present study concluded that STEC could be isolated from both clinically affected as well as healthy animals and birds. Regular monitoring of more samples from animal and bird origin is important to identify natural reservoir of STEC to prevent zoonotic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Neher
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - A. K. Hazarika
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - L. M. Barkalita
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - P. Borah
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - D. P. Bora
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - R. K. Sharma
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
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Mayer CL, Parello CSL, Lee BC, Itagaki K, Kurosawa S, Stearns-Kurosawa DJ. Pro-Coagulant Endothelial Dysfunction Results from EHEC Shiga Toxins and Host Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns. Front Immunol 2015; 6:155. [PMID: 25904918 PMCID: PMC4387861 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli infection is a leading cause of kidney failure in otherwise healthy U.S. children. The bacterial Shiga toxins (Stx) induce the characteristic coagulopathy of HUS, but the damage to toxin-receptor expressing cells and organ injury due to ischemia likely also releases inflammatory damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which may exacerbate injury along with the toxins. To examine this, human aortic and renal glomerular cell anti-coagulant and barrier functions were studied after in vitro challenge with Stx1, Stx2, and DAMPs. There was significant loss of surface anti-coagulant protein C pathway molecules, increased expression of pro-thrombotic PAR1 and reduced protein C activation capability by 15-27%. Histones nearly completely prevented the activated protein C protection of endothelial cells from thrombin-induced permeability. In mice, lethal Stx2 challenge elevated plasma HMGB1 (day 2, 321 ± 118%; p < 0.01) and extracellular histones (day 3, 158 ± 62%; p < 0.01). Mice colonized with Stx2-expressing Citrobacter rodentium developed increased HMGB1 (day 5, 155 ± 55%; p < 0.01) and histones (day 3, 378 ± 188%; p < 0.01). Anti-histone antibody reduced both DAMPs to baseline, but was not sufficient to improve survival outcome or kidney function. Together, these data suggest a potential role Stx to produce DAMPs, and DAMPs to produce endothelial injury and a pro-thrombotic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad L Mayer
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine , Boston, MA , USA
| | - Caitlin S L Parello
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine , Boston, MA , USA
| | - Benjamin C Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine , Boston, MA , USA
| | - Kiyoshi Itagaki
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA , USA
| | - Shinichiro Kurosawa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine , Boston, MA , USA
| | - Deborah J Stearns-Kurosawa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine , Boston, MA , USA
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Rahal EA, Fadlallah SM, Nassar FJ, Kazzi N, Matar GM. Approaches to treatment of emerging Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections highlighting the O104:H4 serotype. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2015; 5:24. [PMID: 25853096 PMCID: PMC4364364 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2015.00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are a group of diarrheagenic bacteria associated with foodborne outbreaks. Infection with these agents may result in grave sequelae that include fatality. A large number of STEC serotypes has been identified to date. E. coli serotype O104:H4 is an emerging pathogen responsible for a 2011 outbreak in Europe that resulted in over 4000 infections and 50 deaths. STEC pathogenicity is highly reliant on the production of one or more Shiga toxins that can inhibit protein synthesis in host cells resulting in a cytotoxicity that may affect various organ systems. Antimicrobials are usually avoided in the treatment of STEC infections since they are believed to induce bacterial cell lysis and the release of stored toxins. Some antimicrobials have also been reported to enhance toxin synthesis and production from these organisms. Various groups have attempted alternative treatment approaches including the administration of toxin-directed antibodies, toxin-adsorbing polymers, probiotic agents and natural remedies. The utility of antibiotics in treating STEC infections has also been reconsidered in recent years with certain modalities showing promise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias A Rahal
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sukayna M Fadlallah
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Farah J Nassar
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Natalie Kazzi
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Ghassan M Matar
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
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