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Biro M, Hill AL, Cardis M, Pasieka HB, Farhat FZ. Chagas disease reactivation associated with cutaneous vasculitis in a heart transplant patient. JAAD Case Rep 2023; 42:42-44. [PMID: 38034365 PMCID: PMC10681877 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdcr.2023.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Biro
- Department of Dermatology, MedStar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Alison L. Hill
- Department of Dermatology, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Michael Cardis
- Department of Dermatology, MedStar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Helena B. Pasieka
- Department of Dermatology, MedStar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, District of Columbia
- Department of Dermatology, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia
- Departments of Dermatology & Medicine, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Freba Z. Farhat
- Department of Dermatology, MedStar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, District of Columbia
- Department of Dermatology, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia
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2
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Vázquez C, García-Vázquez E, Carrilero B, Simón M, Franco F, Iborra MA, Gil-Gallardo LJ, Segovia M. Tolerance and Adherence of Patients with Chronic Chagas Disease Treated with Benznidazole. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2023; 56:S0037-86822023000100305. [PMID: 36700605 PMCID: PMC9870279 DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0384-2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas disease (CD) treatment is commonly associated with a high incidence of adverse effects. It is crucial to study and update these adverse effects to improve the existing knowledge of which drugs to use and to clarify the information presented to patients. METHODS We analyzed the adverse effects of benznidazole in two cohorts of patients: a large retrospective study and a small prospective study. RESULTS This large retrospective study described the most and least common adverse effects in our area and characterized our Chagas disease population. This prospective study, along with a close follow-up of the treatment, detected more adverse effects and enhanced the patients' perception of the disease and treatment. CONCLUSIONS This information is important for preventing non-medical-related withdrawals and for removing baseless fears. Better knowledge of patients could help us provide better care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Vázquez
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - Elisa García-Vázquez
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain.,Universidad de Murcia, Microbiology and Genetics Department, Murcia, Spain
| | - Bartolomé Carrilero
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - Marina Simón
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - Fuensanta Franco
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - María Asunción Iborra
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain.,Universidad de Murcia, Microbiology and Genetics Department, Murcia, Spain
| | - Luis Javier Gil-Gallardo
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - Manuel Segovia
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Microbiology Service, El Palmar, Murcia, Spain.,Universidad de Murcia, Microbiology and Genetics Department, Murcia, Spain
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Ramírez H, Charris K, Fernandez-Moreira E, Nogueda-Torres B, Capparelli MV, Ángel J, Charris J. One-Pot Multicomponent Synthesis of Methoxybenzo[ h]quinoline-3-carbonitrile Derivatives; Anti- Chagas, X-ray, and In Silico ADME/Tox Profiling Studies. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26226977. [PMID: 34834070 PMCID: PMC8619670 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26226977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Several methoxybenzo[h]quinoline-3-carbonitrile analogs were designed and synthesized in a repositioning approach to developing compounds with anti-prostate cancer and anti-Chagas disease properties. The compounds were synthesized through a sequential multicomponent reaction of aromatic aldehydes, malononitrile, and 1-tetralone in the presence of ammonium acetate and acetic acid (catalytic). The effect of the one-pot method on the generation of the target product has been studied. The compounds were in vitro screened against bloodstream trypomastigotes of T. cruzi (NINOA and INC-5 strains) and were most effective at showing a better activity profile than nifurtimox and benznidazole (reference drugs). A study in silico on absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADME/Tox) profiling to help describe the molecular properties related to the pharmacokinetic aspects in the human body of these compounds was reported. In addition, X-ray data for the compound 2-Amino-5,6-dihydro-4-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxy-phenyl)-8-methoxybenzo[h]quinoline-3-carbonitrile 6 was being reported. Spectral (IR, NMR, and elemental analyses) data on all final compounds were consistent with the proposed structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hegira Ramírez
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Apartado 47206, Los Chaguaramos, Caracas 1041-A, Venezuela;
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170503, Ecuador
- Correspondence: (H.R.); (J.C.); Tel.: +593-97-8706334 (H.R.); +58-412-2359228 (J.C.)
| | - Katiuska Charris
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Apartado 47206, Los Chaguaramos, Caracas 1041-A, Venezuela;
| | | | - Benjamín Nogueda-Torres
- Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Departamento de Parasitología, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City 11340, Mexico;
| | - Mario V. Capparelli
- Unidad de Estructura Molecular, Fundación Instituto de Estudios Avanzados (IDEA), Apartado 17606, Caracas 1015-A, Venezuela;
| | - Jorge Ángel
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica y Diseño de Fármacos, Dpto. de Química, Facultad Experimental de Ciencias, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo 4011-A, Venezuela;
| | - Jaime Charris
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Apartado 47206, Los Chaguaramos, Caracas 1041-A, Venezuela;
- Correspondence: (H.R.); (J.C.); Tel.: +593-97-8706334 (H.R.); +58-412-2359228 (J.C.)
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4
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J B, M BM, Chanda K. An Overview on the Therapeutics of Neglected Infectious Diseases-Leishmaniasis and Chagas Diseases. Front Chem 2021; 9:622286. [PMID: 33777895 PMCID: PMC7994601 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.622286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) as termed by WHO include twenty different infectious diseases that are caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Among these NTDs, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis are reported to cause high mortality in humans and are further associated with the limitations of existing drugs like severe toxicity and drug resistance. The above hitches have rendered researchers to focus on developing alternatives and novel therapeutics for the treatment of these diseases. In the past decade, several target-based drugs have emerged, which focus on specific biochemical pathways of the causative parasites. For leishmaniasis, the targets such as nucleoside analogs, inhibitors targeting nucleoside phosphate kinases of the parasite’s purine salvage pathway, 20S proteasome of Leishmania, mitochondria, and the associated proteins are reviewed along with the chemical structures of potential drug candidates. Similarly, in case of therapeutics for Chagas disease, several target-based drug candidates targeting sterol biosynthetic pathway (C14-ademethylase), L-cysteine protease, heme peroxidation, mitochondria, farnesyl pyrophosphate, etc., which are vital and unique to the causative parasite are discussed. Moreover, the use of nano-based formulations towards the therapeutics of the above diseases is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brindha J
- Division of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Balamurali M M
- Division of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Kaushik Chanda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
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5
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Ouarhache M, Marquet S, Frade AF, Ferreira AM, Ianni B, Almeida RR, Nunes JPS, Ferreira LRP, Rigaud VO, Cândido D, Mady C, Zaniratto RCF, Buck P, Torres M, Gallardo F, Andrieux P, Bydlowsky S, Levy D, Abel L, Cardoso CS, Santos-Junior OR, Oliveira LC, Oliveira CDL, Nunes MDC, Cobat A, Kalil J, Ribeiro AL, Sabino EC, Cunha-Neto E, Chevillard C. Rare Pathogenic Variants in Mitochondrial and Inflammation-Associated Genes May Lead to Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy in Chagas Disease. J Clin Immunol 2021; 41:1048-63. [PMID: 33660144 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-021-01000-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Abstract Cardiomyopathies are an important cause of heart failure and sudden cardiac death. Little is known about the role of rare genetic variants in inflammatory cardiomyopathy. Chronic Chagas disease cardiomyopathy (CCC) is an inflammatory cardiomyopathy prevalent in Latin America, developing in 30% of the 6 million patients chronically infected by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, while 60% remain free of heart disease (asymptomatic (ASY)). The cytokine interferon-γ and mitochondrial dysfunction are known to play a major pathogenetic role. Chagas disease provides a unique model to probe for genetic variants involved in inflammatory cardiomyopathy. Methods We used whole exome sequencing to study nuclear families containing multiple cases of Chagas disease. We searched for rare pathogenic variants shared by all family members with CCC but absent in infected ASY siblings and in unrelated ASY. Results We identified heterozygous, pathogenic variants linked to CCC in all tested families on 22 distinct genes, from which 20 were mitochondrial or inflammation-related – most of the latter involved in proinflammatory cytokine production. Significantly, incubation with IFN-γ on a human cardiomyocyte line treated with an inhibitor of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase brequinar (enzyme showing a loss-of-function variant in one family) markedly reduced mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔψM), indicating mitochondrial dysfunction. Conclusion Mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation may be genetically determined in CCC, driven by rare genetic variants. We hypothesize that CCC-linked genetic variants increase mitochondrial susceptibility to IFN-γ-induced damage in the myocardium, leading to the cardiomyopathy phenotype in Chagas disease. This mechanism may also be operative in other inflammatory cardiomyopathies. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10875-021-01000-y.
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6
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Capelini C, Câmara VRF, Villar JDF, Barbosa JMC, Salomão K, de Castro SL, Junior PAS, Murta SMF, Couto TB, Lourenço MCS, Wardell JL, Low JN, da Silva EF, Carvalho SA. Synthesis, Antitrypanosomal and Antimycobacterial Activities of Coumarin N-acylhydrazonic Derivatives. Med Chem 2020; 17:630-637. [PMID: 31965946 DOI: 10.2174/1573406416666200121105215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Near to 5-7 million people are infected with T. cruzi in the world, and about 10,000 people per year die of problems associated with this disease. METHODS Herein, the synthesis, antitrypanosomal and antimycobacterial activities of seventeen coumarinic N-acylhydrazonic derivatives have been reported. RESULTS These compounds were synthesized using methodology with reactions global yields ranging from 46%-70%. T. cruzi in vitro effects were evaluated against trypomastigote and amastigote, forming M. tuberculosis activity towards H37Rv sensitive strain and resistant strains. DISCUSSION Against T. cruzi, the more active compounds revealed only moderate activity IC50/96h~20 μM for both trypomastigotes and amastigotes intracellular forms. (E)-2-oxo-N'- (3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidene)-2H-chromene-3-carbohydrazide showed meaningful activity in INH resistant/RIP resistant strain. CONCLUSION These compound acting as multitarget could be good leads for the development of new trypanocidal and bactericidal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Capelini
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos - Farmanguinhos, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21041-250 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Vitória R F Câmara
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos - Farmanguinhos, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21041-250 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - José D Figueroa Villar
- Grupo de Quimica Medicinal, Departamento de Quimica, Instituto Militar de Engenharia, Praca General Tiburcio 80, 22290-270 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Juliana M C Barbosa
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21040-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Kelly Salomão
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21040-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Solange L de Castro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21040-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Policarpo A S Junior
- Instituto Rene Rachou - Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 30190002 - Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Silvane M F Murta
- Instituto Rene Rachou - Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 30190002 - Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Thais B Couto
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21045-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria C S Lourenço
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21045-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - James L Wardell
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos - Farmanguinhos, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21041-250 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - John N Low
- Department of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen, Old Aberdeen, AB 24 3 UE, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Edson F da Silva
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos - Farmanguinhos, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21041-250 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Samir A Carvalho
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos - Farmanguinhos, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, 21041-250 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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7
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Dye-Braumuller KC, Gorchakov R, Gunter SM, Nielsen DH, Roachell WD, Wheless A, Debboun M, Murray KO, Nolan MS. Identification of Triatomines and Their Habitats in a Highly Developed Urban Environment. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2019; 19:265-273. [PMID: 30571182 PMCID: PMC6459272 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2018.2352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Eleven triatomine species, the vector for Chagas disease, are endemic in the southern U.S. While traditionally thought to only occur in rural habitats and sylvatic transmission cycles, recent studies provide compounding evidence that triatomines could exist in urban habitats and domestic transmission cycles in Texas. We conducted a study of active and passive surveillance techniques over 3 years (2016-2018) in the City of Houston, Harris County, Texas to determine the presence of triatomines in this metroplex. Active surveillance methods uncovered Triatoma sanguisuga nymphs from two locations in downtown Houston city parks. We also documented the first Trypanosoma cruzi positive kissing bug collected in an urban environment of Harris County, Texas. Our findings provide evidence that triatomines can be found in heavily populated U.S. urban environments, and warrant public health support for expanded triatomine and Chagas disease surveillance in city settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rodion Gorchakov
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Sarah M. Gunter
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - David H. Nielsen
- Public Health Command Central, JBSA-Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas
| | - Walter D. Roachell
- Public Health Command Central, JBSA-Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas
| | - Anna Wheless
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Mustapha Debboun
- Mosquito and Vector Control Division, Harris County Public Health, Houston, Texas
| | - Kristy O. Murray
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Melissa S. Nolan
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
- Department of Epidemiology, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina
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8
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Woodring J, Behera R, Sharma A, Wiedeman J, Patel G, Singh B, Guyett P, Amata E, Erath J, Roncal N, Penn E, Leed SE, Rodriguez A, Sciotti RJ, Mensa-Wilmot K, Pollastri MP. Series of Alkynyl-Substituted Thienopyrimidines as Inhibitors of Protozoan Parasite Proliferation. ACS Med Chem Lett 2018; 9:996-1001. [PMID: 30344906 PMCID: PMC6187419 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.8b00245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Discovery of new chemotherapeutic lead agents can be accelerated by optimizing chemotypes proven to be effective in other diseases to act against parasites. One such medicinal chemistry campaign has focused on optimizing the anilinoquinazoline drug lapatinib (1) and the alkynyl thieno[3,2-d]pyrimidine hit GW837016X (NEU-391, 3) into leads for antitrypanosome drugs. We now report the structure-activity relationship studies of 3 and its analogs against Trypanosoma brucei, which causes human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). The series was also tested against Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania major, and Plasmodium falciparum. In each case, potent antiparasitic hits with acceptable toxicity margins over mammalian HepG2 and NIH3T3 cell lines were identified. In a mouse model of HAT, 3 extended life of treated mice by 50%, compared to untreated controls. At the cellular level, 3 inhibited mitosis and cytokinesis in T. brucei. Thus, the alkynylthieno[3,2-d]pyrimidine chemotype is an advanced hit worthy of further optimization as a potential chemotherapeutic agent for HAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer
L. Woodring
- Department
of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Northeastern
University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Ranjan Behera
- Department
of Cellular Biology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Amrita Sharma
- Department
of Cellular Biology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Justin Wiedeman
- Department
of Cellular Biology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Gautam Patel
- Department
of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Northeastern
University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Baljinder Singh
- Department
of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Northeastern
University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Paul Guyett
- Department
of Cellular Biology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Emanuele Amata
- Department
of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Northeastern
University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Jessey Erath
- Department
of Microbiology, New York University School
of Medicine, 430 E. 29th Street New York, New York 10010, United
States
- Anti-Infectives
Screening Core, New York University School
of Medicine, New York, New York 10010, United
States
| | - Norma Roncal
- Experimental
Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute
of Research, 2460 Linden Lane, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United
States
| | - Erica Penn
- Experimental
Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute
of Research, 2460 Linden Lane, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United
States
| | - Susan E. Leed
- Experimental
Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute
of Research, 2460 Linden Lane, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United
States
| | - Ana Rodriguez
- Department
of Microbiology, New York University School
of Medicine, 430 E. 29th Street New York, New York 10010, United
States
- Anti-Infectives
Screening Core, New York University School
of Medicine, New York, New York 10010, United
States
| | - Richard J. Sciotti
- Experimental
Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute
of Research, 2460 Linden Lane, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, United
States
| | - Kojo Mensa-Wilmot
- Department
of Cellular Biology, Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Michael P. Pollastri
- Department
of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Northeastern
University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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