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Abstract
Emergence of the betacoronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in a historic pandemic, with millions of deaths worldwide. An unprecedented effort has been made by the medical, scientific, and public health communities to rapidly develop and implement vaccines and therapeutics to prevent and reduce hospitalizations and deaths. Although SARS-CoV-2 infection can lead to disease in many organ systems, the respiratory system is its main target, with pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome as the hallmark features of severe disease. The large number of patients who have contracted COVID-19 infections since 2019 has permitted a detailed characterization of the clinical and pathologic features of the disease in humans. However, continued progress in the development of effective preventatives and therapies requires a deeper understanding of the pathogenesis of infection. Studies using animal models are necessary to complement in vitro findings and human clinical data. Multiple animal species have been evaluated as potential models for studying the respiratory disease caused by SARSCoV-2 infection. Knowing the similarities and differences between animal and human responses to infection is critical for effective translation of animal data into human medicine. This review provides a detailed summary of the respiratory disease and associated pathology induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans and compares them with the disease that develops in 3 commonly used models: NHP, hamsters, and mice. The effective use of animals to study SARS-CoV-2-induced respiratory disease will enhance our understanding of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis, allow the development of novel preventatives and therapeutics, and aid in the preparation for the next emerging virus with pandemic potential.
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Key Words
- ace2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- agm, african green monkey
- ali, acute lung injury
- ards, acute respiratory distress syndrome
- balf, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid
- cards, covid-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome
- dad, diffuse alveolar damage
- dpi, days postinfection
- ggo, ground glass opacities
- s, spike glycoprotein
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Dillard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Sabian A Martinez
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Justin J Dearing
- Biological and Biomedical Sciences Program, Office of Graduate Education, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Stephanie A Montgomery
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Andvictoria K Baxter
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina;,
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2
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Abstract
COVID-19, the disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 betacoronavirus, was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020. Since then, SARS-CoV-2 has triggered a devastating global health and economic emergency. In response, a broad range of preclinical animal models have been used to identify effective therapies and vaccines. Current animal models do not express the full spectrum of human COVID-19 disease and pathology, with most exhibiting mild to moderate disease without mortality. NHPs are physiologically, genetically, and immunologically more closely related to humans than other animal species; thus, they provide a relevant model for SARS-CoV-2 investigations. This overview summarizes NHP models of SARS-CoV-2 and their role in vaccine and therapeutic development.
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Key Words
- ace2, angiotensin l converting enzyme 2
- ade, antibody dependent enhancement
- agm, african green monkey
- ards, acute respiratory distress syndrome
- balf, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid
- cj, conjunctival
- cm, cynomolgus macaque
- covid-19, coronavirus disease 19
- cp, convalescent plasma
- dad, diffuse alveolar damage
- dpc, days post challenge
- dpi, days post infection
- ggos, ground glass opacities
- grna, genomic ribonucleic acid
- hcq, hydroxychloroquine
- it, intratracheal
- nab, neutralizing antibodies
- ptm, pigtail macaque
- rbd, receptor binding domain
- rm, rhesus macaque
- s, spike
- sgrna, subgenomic ribonucleic acid
- th1, type 1 t helper cell
- vrna, viral ribonucleic acid
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita M Trichel
- Division of Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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3
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Knight AC, Montgomery SA, Fletcher CA, Baxter VK. Mouse Models for the Study of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Comp Med 2021; 71:383-397. [PMID: 34610856 PMCID: PMC8594264 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-21-000031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mice are an invaluable resource for studying virus-induced disease. They are a small, genetically modifiable animal for which a large arsenal of genetic and immunologic tools is available for evaluation of pathogenesis and potential vaccines and therapeutics. SARS-CoV-2, the betacoronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, does not naturally replicate in wild-type mice, due to structural differences between human and mouse ACE2, the primary receptor for SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. However, several mouse strains have been developed that allow for SARS-CoV-2 replication and clinical disease. Two broad strategies have primarily been deployed for developing mouse strains susceptible to COVID-19-like disease: adding in the human ACE2 gene and adapting the virus to the mouse ACE2 receptor. Both approaches result in mice that develop several of the clinical and pathologic hallmarks of COVID-19, including acute respiratory distress syndrome and acute lung injury. In this review, we describe key acute pulmonary and extrapulmonary pathologic changes seen in COVID-19 patients that mouse models of SARS-CoV-2 infection ideally replicate, the essential development of mouse models for the study of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome and the basis of many of the models of COVID-19, and key clinical and pathologic features of currently available mouse models of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Key Words
- aav, adeno-associated virus
- ace2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- ali, acute lung injury
- ards, acute respiratory distress syndrome
- covid-19, coronavirus disease 19
- dad, diffuse alveolar damage
- dpi, days postinfection
- dpp4, dipeptidyl peptidase 4
- hace2, human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- mace2, mouse angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- mers, middle eastern respiratory syndrome
- mers-cov, middle eastern respiratory syndrome coronavirus
- sars, severe acute respiratory syndrome
- sars-cov, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus
- sars-cov-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey C Knight
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
- Institute for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, and
| | - Stephanie A Montgomery
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Craig A Fletcher
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Victoria K Baxter
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
- Division of Comparative Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
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Malaquias MAS, Gadotti AC, Motta-Junior JDS, Martins APC, Azevedo MLV, Benevides APK, Cézar-Neto P, Panini do Carmo LA, Zeni RC, Raboni SM, Fonseca AS, Machado-Souza C, Moreno-Amaral AN, de Noronha L. The role of the lectin pathway of the complement system in SARS-CoV-2 lung injury. Transl Res 2021; 231:55-63. [PMID: 33221483 PMCID: PMC7677075 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2020.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Although some evidence showed the activation of complement systems in COVID-19 patients, proinflammatory status and lectin pathway remain unclear. Thus, the present study aimed to demonstrate the role of MBL and ficolin-3 in the complement system activation and compared to pandemic Influenza A virus H1N1 subtype infection (H1N1pdm09) and control patients. A total of 27 lungs formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples (10 from H1N1 group, 6 from the COVID-19 group, and 11 from the control group) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry using anti-IL-6, TNF-alfa, CD163, MBL e FCN3 antibodies. Genotyping of target polymorphisms in the MBL2 gene was performed by real-time PCR. Proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-alpha presented higher tissue expression in the COVID-19 group compared to H1N1 and control groups. The same results were observed for ICAM-1 tissue expression. Increased expression of the FCN3 was observed in the COVID-19 group and H1N1 group compared to the control group. The MBL tissue expression was higher in the COVID-19 group compared to H1N1 and control groups. The genotypes AA for rs180040 (G/A), GG for rs1800451 (G/A) and CC for rs5030737 (T/C) showed a higher prevalence in the COVID-19 group. The intense activation of the lectin pathway, with particular emphasis on the MBL pathway, together with endothelial dysfunction and a massive proinflammatory cytokines production, possibly lead to a worse outcome in patients infected with SARS-Cov-2. Moreover, 3 SNPs of our study presented genotypes that might be correlated with high MBL tissue expression in the COVID-19 pulmonary samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mineia Alessandra Scaranello Malaquias
- Postdoctoral Researcher Postgraduate Program in Health Sciences School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
| | - Ana Carolina Gadotti
- Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Jarbas da Silva Motta-Junior
- Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Camargo Martins
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Marina Luise Viola Azevedo
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Kubaski Benevides
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Plínio Cézar-Neto
- School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Rafaela Chiuco Zeni
- School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Sonia Mara Raboni
- Laboratory of Virology, Hospital de Clínicas, Federal University of Paraná - UFPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Aline Simoneti Fonseca
- Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe (FPP). Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe (IPPPP), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Cleber Machado-Souza
- Faculdades Pequeno Príncipe (FPP). Instituto de Pesquisa Pelé Pequeno Príncipe (IPPPP), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Andrea Novais Moreno-Amaral
- Anemia and Immunology Research Laboratory (LabAIRe), School of Medicine, Pontifical Catholic University of Parana - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Lucia de Noronha
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná - PUCPR, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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5
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Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an infectious condition caused by the SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV), a new member in the family Coronaviridae. To evaluate the lung pathology in this life-threatening respiratory illness, we studied postmortem lung sections from 8 patients who died from SARS during the spring 2003 Singapore outbreak. The predominant pattern of lung injury in all 8 cases was diffuse alveolar damage. The histology varied according to duration of illness. Cases that were 10 or fewer days in duration demonstrated acute phase diffuse alveolar damage (DAD), airspace edema, and bronchiolar fibrin. Cases with a time course greater than 10 days showed organizing phase DAD, type II pneumocyte hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia, multinucleated giant cells, and acute bronchopneumonia. In acute DAD, pancytokeratin staining was positive in hyaline membranes along alveolar walls and highlighted the absence of pneumocytes. Multinucleated cells were shown to be both type II pneumocytes and macrophages by pancytokeratin, TTF-1, and CD68 staining. SARS-CoV RNA was identified by RT-PCR in 7 of 8 cases in fresh autopsy tissue and in 8 of 8 cases in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded lung tissue including the one negative case in fresh tissue. Understanding the pathology of DAD in SARS patients may provide the basis for therapeutic strategies. Further studies of the pathogenesis of SARS may reveal new insights into mechanisms of DAD.
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