Accidental paradiplomats? The curious case of Ontario school board budgets and Canadian soft power projection

From the earliest studies of soft power in International Relations, the importance of educational exchanges has been well-established. Studies of international education in the context of Canadian soft power often draw on cases from the higher education sector. This article argues that greater attention should be paid to the K-12 level, especially as budgetary pressures in Ontario's education system are leading school boards to rapidly expand their international student recruitment efforts. Although this is not an example of intentional soft power projection, it nevertheless represents an important reminder that subnational actors may accidentally become paradiplomats whose actions have consequences on the international level. Further, this case reveals the importance of paying attention to actors typically overlooked by IR scholarship. Drawing on Joseph Nye's theory of soft power and in conversation with prior research on international education as a mechanism of soft power projection, this article traces the thread between budgetary pressures in Ontario school boards and the broader context of soft power projection.

Robust variance estimation in small meta-analysis with the standardized mean difference

Conventional random-effects models in meta-analysis rely on large sample approximations instead of exact small sample results. While random-effects methods produce efficient estimates and confidence intervals for the summary effect have correct coverage when the number of studies is sufficiently large, we demonstrate that conventional methods result in confidence intervals that are not wide enough when the number of studies is small, depending on the configuration of sample sizes across studies, the degree of true heterogeneity and number of studies. We introduce two alternative variance estimators with better small sample properties, investigate degrees of freedom adjustments for computing confidence intervals, and study their effectiveness via simulation studies.

Navigating Policy and Local Context in Times of Crisis: District and School Leader Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic

Purpose: To examine how federal/state-level policy guidance and local context have influenced district and school leader responses to the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as how these external/internal factors might provide a window into K-12 crisis leadership and policy sensemaking more broadly. Research: Investigating two districts over two years (2020-2022), data gathered include 39 hours of interviews with K-12 leaders (n = 41) and teachers (n = 18), federal/state-level policy documents (N = 64) governing these districts, and school staff responses to the Comprehensive Assessment of Leaders for Learning survey (N = 111). Drawing theoretically upon sensemaking, crisis leadership/management, law/policy implementation, and organizational theory, these data were analyzed using both inductive and deductive coding over several phases. Findings: In tracing the confluence of federal/state-level guidance and local capacities, we find both influenced K-12 leaders' sensemaking and subsequent responses to COVID-19. However, districts that possessed adequate expertise and organizational resources were better positioned to respond to the crisis, whereas those lacking such capacities experienced increased anxiety/stress. Conclusion: We argue that the COVID-19 pandemic provides a new window into the critical external/internal factors influencing K-12 leader sensemaking and subsequent responses to crises more broadly. We also discuss the potential role intermediate service agencies might play in the development of a stronger crisis response infrastructure for associated districts and schools. Finally, we point out how principal preparation programs and professional development efforts could prospectively address such crisis-related challenges faced by K-12 leaders.

Paradigm shifting of education system during COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study on education components

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a far-reaching effect on the education system, leading to some changes in the conventional education system. Educational institutions are adopting alternative methods to adapt to the changed situation. The purpose of this study is to explore the changes that have taken place in the education system due to the pandemic situation. A qualitative phenomenological approach has been used to conduct the study. To get a complete picture of the shifting paradigm of the education system, two interview methods such as In-depth Interviews (IDI), Key Informant Interviews (KII) have been adopted. Interviews were taken from 15 respondents. A purposive sampling technique has been used to reach the target sample. A semi-structured questionnaire has been developed to collect necessary data. The findings of this study showed that COVID-19 pandemic has led to changes in various components of the education system. Curriculum, syllabus, assessment method, teaching method, learning method, etc., have changed in the education system. The elements of education are shifting from offline to online. The use of online-based learning materials is increasing. The curriculum has been made more flexible with a more compressed and shortened syllabus to suit the students learning under such unforeseen circumstances. Faculty should promote online study groups so that those groups can assist in providing additional support throughout specific courses. The education policy should be changed by the Bangladesh government to adapt to the changed situation.

Middle school start times and young adolescent sleep, behavioral health, and academic performance outcomes: a narrative review

STUDY OBJECTIVES

This narrative review aims to synthesize peer-reviewed and gray literature research that associates middle school start times to adolescent sleep, health, and academic performance.

METHODS

A systematic search of publications in PubMed, Scopus, ERIC, APA PsycInfo, CINAHL, ProceedingsFirst, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses from 2002-2020 was conducted. Studies with middle school students that had either an empirical evaluation of the implementation of a change in school start time or a comparison of schools with different school start times, and which also reported outcomes related to sleep and health and quantitative academic measures were included. School characteristics, student demographics, study design, start times, and outcomes were extracted from the full-text review.

RESULTS

The review identified 1,136 articles; after removing duplicates, 845 were screened. Following title and abstract review, 18 articles were eligible for full-text review. Nine studies did not meet inclusion criteria. Half of the reviewed 10 studies used cross-sectional designs, 8 evaluated sleep, 6 evaluated behavioral health, and 3 evaluated academic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Late middle school start times can improve adolescents' sleep and reduce daytime sleepiness by increasing total sleep time and delaying waketime. The current studies provide promising evidence that late-start times can improve tardiness, executive function, negative affect and mood, grade-point average, and standardized test scores. Methodologically robust research on delayed middle school start times can inform public policy and promote change.

CITATION

Barlaan DR, Pangelinan BA, Johns A, Schweikhard A, Cromer LD. Middle school start times and young adolescent sleep, behavioral health, and academic performance outcomes: a narrative review. J Clin Sleep Med. 2022;18(11):2681-2694.

Economic Imperialism in Education Research: A Conceptual Review

In this review, we explore economic imperialism, a concept that captures the phenomenon of a single discipline's power over so many facets of social life and policy-including education. Through a systematic search, we examine how economic imperialism has been conceptualized and applied across fields. We uncovered three key, interconnected elements of economic imperialism that hold relevance for education research. First, economics has colonized other disciplines, narrowing the lens through which policymakers have designed education reforms. Second, an overreliance on economic rationales for human behavior neglects other explanations. Third, a focus on economic outcomes of education has subjugated other important aims of education. We share implications for researchers to use economic theory in ways that are interdisciplinary but not imperialist.

Economic Inequality, the Digital Divide, and Remote Learning During COVID-19

Wealth and education establish a cycle of intergenerational inequality. Wealthier households can provide more educational opportunities for their children, who then will have more chances to build wealth for themselves. The digital divide may have emerged as a key reinforcing mechanism of education through wealth and of future wealth through education during the pandemic. The intergenerational transmission of racial wealth inequality likely played out at rapid speed during the pandemic. We analyze the link between wealth, reliable internet and electronic device availability, remote learning time, race, and ethnicity, using the U.S. Census Bureau's Household Pulse Survey. We conclude that Black and Hispanic/Latinx households have less reliable internet and devices available. This goes along with fewer hours children spend on remote learning. The lack of internet and devices correlates with less wealth, as reflected in lower homeownership rates and greater housing instability. Black and Hispanic/Latinx households, in particular, are more likely to be renters and face housing instability.

Science Advocacy 101: Realizing the Benefits, Overcoming the Challenges

To many researchers interested in connecting their research to policy decisions and advocating for increased federal investment in science, the federal policy-making and appropriations processes may feel distant and difficult to navigate. The goal of this article is to provide an overview of the federal budget and legislative processes, as well as an understanding of the congressional offices and committees managing these processes, with information about how policymakers incorporate evidence into their work and the challenges they face. The article describes the policy-making ecosystem, in particular the role of the advocacy community. We identify specific points in the process that provide opportunities for researchers and advocates to weigh in on important issues such as federal funding for science and the scientific workforce. Case studies are provided demonstrating two advocacy successes. Finally, we provide a list of relevant resources.

Racial-ethnic differences in educational trajectories for individuals with intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

Racial-ethnic differences in educational attainment have not been explored among adults with intellectual disability (ID). Because adults with ID and racial-ethnic minority groups have been historically marginalised from educational pathways through life, they have likely experienced cumulative disadvantage. Therefore, investigating the intersection of ID and race-ethnicity is necessary to increase understanding of educational attainment among adults with ID.

METHODS

Using 1986-2017 National Health Interview Survey data, we examined the educational trajectories of adults with ID, stratified by race-ethnicity (N = 4610). Generalised ordered logistic regression models were utilised to estimate the effect of birth cohort on educational attainment by race-ethnicity among adults with ID.

RESULTS

Results support prior findings that educational attainment increased for adults with ID around the 1950-1959 birth cohort; however, this was only the case for non-Hispanic Whites. For racial-ethnic minority groups, the probability of attaining a high school degree did not increase until comparatively later birth cohorts: non-Hispanic Black adults did not have their largest gains in educational attainment until the 1960-1969 birth cohort; Hispanic adults did not have their largest gains in attainment until the 1980-1999 birth cohort.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence of improvements in educational attainment for all adults with ID across birth cohorts. However, racial-ethnic disparities were also present - educational attainment levels for non-Hispanic Blacks remained lower than for non-Hispanic Whites across all birth cohorts in the study. Hispanics were able to catch up to and surpass both non-Hispanic Whites and non-Hispanic Blacks by the end of the study period, despite lower levels of education in the early birth cohorts. Results from this study highlight the need to attend to race-ethnicity when examining educational outcomes among adults with ID.

Universal design for learning in inclusive education policy in South Africa

Background

South Africa has undertaken the implementation of inclusive education as a vehicle for achieving enhanced educational outcomes and equity. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an instructional design framework that takes into account the wide range of variations in skills and abilities that exist across all learners, and provides a research-based set of principles and guidelines for inclusive curriculum development and delivery.

Objectives

To locate UDL within the specific inclusive education policy context of South Africa and consider how this approach can support policy implementation. We have argued that UDL could serve as a strategy to link policy imperatives with classroom practice, enabling effective communication between the different actors.

Method

We reviewed fundamental inclusive education policies in South Africa and research relating to their implementation, and how they configure support and curriculum differentiation. We then compared this understanding with that proposed by UDL and considered what could be gained in adopting a UDL framework.

Results

We noted that UDL has several advantages in that it allows for a common language between education stakeholders and gives new meaning to the interpretation of levels of support.

Conclusion

The implementation of inclusive education in South Africa could be enhanced by introducing the concepts of UDL into policy, research and teaching practice as a common language and vehicle for packaging support systems.

Moving Policy Toward a Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child Approach to Support Children Who Have Experienced Trauma

BACKGROUND

As attention to the potential negative outcomes of childhood trauma has grown, so have calls for schools to take an active role in supporting students experiencing trauma. These calls extend beyond efforts initiated by individual schools to include those mandated by state law, which largely focus on teacher training and on screening for adversity.

METHODS

This article explores the evidence base and limitations for current approaches in state law and explores how policies to address other student health, safety, and wellness issues can help either ameliorate or exacerbate students' experiences with trauma.

RESULTS

Few trainings for nonclinical staff have rigorous evidence of effectiveness, and based on evidence of teacher trainings on other topics, cannot work in environments that do not actively reinforce and encourage the application of that knowledge. Trainings also largely do not acknowledge the structures and systems, including systemic racism within schools, that may contribute to disparate rates of adversity for black and American Indian and Alaskan Native children. Screening carries several risks, including confounding adversity with experiencing trauma, missing broader contextual adversity, and potentially retraumatizing children.

CONCLUSIONS

State policymakers need to take a more holistic approach in creating policies to support students experiencing trauma.

Electronic Health Record Use among Ophthalmology Residents while on Call

BACKGROUND

As electronic health record (EHR) use becomes more widespread, detailed records of how users interact with the EHR, known as EHR audit logs, are being used to characterize the clinical workflows of physicians including residents. After-hours EHR use is of particular interest given its known association with physician burnout. Several studies have analyzed EHR audit logs for residents in other fields, such as internal medicine, but none thus far in ophthalmology. Here, we focused specifically on EHR use during on-call shifts outside of normal clinic hours.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, we analyzed raw EHR audit log data from on-call shifts for 12 ophthalmology residents at a single institution over the course of a calendar year. Data were analyzed to characterize total time spent using the EHR, clinical volume, diagnoses of patients seen on call, and EHR tasks.

RESULTS

Across all call shifts, the median and interquartile range (IQR) of the time spent logged into the EHR per shift were 88 and 131 minutes, respectively. The median (IQR) unique patient charts accessed per shift was 7 (9) patients. When standardized to per-hour measures, weekday evening shifts were the busiest call shifts with regard to both EHR use time and clinical volume. Total EHR use time and clinical volume were greatest in the summer months (July to September). Chart review comprised a majority (63.4%) of ophthalmology residents' on-call EHR activities.

CONCLUSION

In summary, EHR audit logs demonstrate substantial call burden for ophthalmology residents outside of regular clinic hours. These data and future studies can be used to further characterize the clinical exposure and call burden of ophthalmology residents and could potentially have broader implications in the fields of physician burnout and education policy.

Preparing Children for Pandemics

COVID-19 has given us a food for thought that whether we are prepared for such pandemics or not. Developed nations may say that they have enough resources to tackle such situations, but when it comes to the physical and emotional security of the children, even they have to think manifolds because preparing children for such pandemics need lot of effort and apt planning. The purpose of this chapter is to reflect issues related to children during any infectious disease outbreak like COVID-19. Adults are mature enough to control their emotions and can act patiently, but immature minds are always perplexed and act in a very clingy way when some adverse situation is thrown to them. Children are ardent observers and act according to the reactions of the folks around them. It is difficult for them to conceal their behavior, and it is difficult for parents as well to manage their anxiety levels. During crisis period when social distancing and refrained outdoor activities have brought our children into a knotty situation, it is necessary that we understand their fears and myths, try to resolve their concerns in a polite way and strengthen their minds. At this stage the role of parents, teachers, educational institutes, social media, and international children’s organizations need to be redefined. The importance of the decisions taken by the governing bodies should be explained to the children in an effective way, so that they do not panic and reflect a brave attitude. UNICEF in collaboration with international health support systems and departments has a major role to play. Appropriate planning for preparing the children for pandemics has to be incorporated in our system, so that any future crisis can be dealt in an easier way. Schools colleges and other educational institutes should execute immunization and hygiene and health practices in advance to promote prevention.

Why Intelligence Is Missing from American Education Policy and Practice, and What Can Be Done About It

To understand why education as a field has not incorporated intelligence, we must consider the field's history and culture. Accordingly, in this cross-disciplinary collaboration between a political scientist who studies institutions and a psychologist who studies intelligence, we outline how the roots of contemporary American Educational Leadership as a field determine its contemporary avoidance of the concept of intelligence. Rooted in early 20th century progressivism and scientific management, Educational Leadership theory envisions professionally run schools as "Taylorist" factories with teaching and leadership largely standardized, prioritizing compliance over cognitive ability among educators. Further, the roots of modern education theory do not see the intelligence of students as largely malleable. Hence, prioritizing intelligence is viewed as elitist. For more than a century, these assumptions have impacted recruitment into education as a profession. We conclude with ideas about how to bring intelligence into mainstream schooling, within the existing K-12 education institutional context. We believe that better integration of intelligence and broader individual differences research in education policy and practice would lead to more rapid advances to finding evidence based solutions to help children.

Poor Choices: The Sociopolitical Context of "Grand Theft Education"

In recent years, districts have paid special attention to the common practice of "district hopping," families bending geographic school assignment rules by sending a child to a school in a district where the child does not formally reside-usually to a district that is more desirable because of higher performing schools or greater educational resources. In several high-profile cases, mothers who engaged in district hopping were charged with "grand theft" of educational services. By situating these cases in the broader context of market-based reforms, we refocus attention on the responses of districts rather than the actions of parents. We argue that increased privatization of education and growing dominance of a "private-goods" model of schooling create the conditions necessary for framing these actions as "theft."

The Language of Programming: A Cognitive Perspective

Computer programming is becoming essential across fields. Traditionally grouped with science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, programming also bears parallels to natural languages. These parallels may translate into overlapping processing mechanisms. Investigating the cognitive basis of programming is important for understanding the human mind and could transform education practices.

Building a Global Culture of Science-The Vietnam Experience

We detail the lessons learned, challenges, achievements, and outlook in building a chemistry research center in Vietnam. Through the principles of "global science", we provide specific insight into the process behind establishing an internationally-competitive research program-a model that is scalable and adaptable to countries beyond Vietnam. Furthermore, we highlight the prospects for success in advancing global science education, research capacity building, and mentorship.

K-12 School Employee Sexual Abuse and Misconduct: An Examination of Policy Effectiveness

Despite federal and state laws and policies aimed at preventing sexual misconduct by school employees, one in ten American students will experience sexual abuse or misconduct at the hands of a K-12 school employee. To explore why such sexual misconduct continues to occur, this study examined the effectiveness of education policies by investigating whether and how school employees understand these policies, how they are implemented, and how loopholes may undermine their intent. This qualitative case study was conducted in three Virginia school districts and included 46 semi-structured interviews with school district employees and county, state, and federal government employees associated with cases of school employee sexual misconduct, and extensive document analysis of school policies and procedures, laws, and court records. Analyses revealed an absence of policy implementation, demonstrated most seriously by a lack of awareness and understanding of policies among school employees, underreporting, and ineffective data collection. The study also identified a number of loopholes in the implementation of policies, resulting from a mismanaged intergovernmental system. The analysis suggests that understanding and implementation of policies meant to prevent sexual misconduct by school employees are fragmented; this fragmentation may be contributing to the continued prevalence of sexual misconduct by school employees.

Passing the Trash: Absence of State Laws Allows for Continued Sexual Abuse of K-12 Students by School Employees

"Passing the trash," enabling teachers who sexually abuse students to pursue another job with no record of their sexual misconduct, is common practice for K-12 school district administrators who fear legal liability and tarnished reputations. The "Prohibition on Aiding and Abetting Sexual Abuse" provision in the United States Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015 aims to eliminate passing the trash. This study explores states' progress toward developing and implementing relevant law and policy to comply with the provision. Researchers collected data from representatives of state departments of education, asking whether representatives were aware of the provision and what progress their state had made toward complying with it. Overall, researchers found that just four states had fully complied; several others were in the process of creating relevant policy and legislation and a few began the process in response to researchers' queries. However, the overwhelming majority of states-39-had no plans to create relevant legislation or policy, either because they were unaware of the provision or because they believed, erroneously, that existing laws fulfilled the ESSA mandate. Passing the trash is clearly an unacceptable practice, yet research suggests it still occurs, and state-level laws and policies to prevent it are slow to emerge. The lack of knowledge or awareness exhibited by many state representatives suggests a need to educate policymakers and education leaders about what aiding and abetting sexual offenders consists of, what consequences it can have for vulnerable students, and what provisions states can enact to prohibit it.

Exposing School Employee Sexual Abuse and Misconduct: Shedding Light on a Sensitive Issue

While the media continue to report incidents of school employee sexual misconduct, few empirical studies focus on this issue. To address this gap in the literature, expand knowledge and awareness around the problem, and inform future research and programs, this research intends to document and analyze the characteristics of school employee sexual misconduct cases reported in the media. The authors conducted a landscape analysis of 361 published school employee sexual misconduct cases in the United States from 2014, documenting factors such as offender and victim characteristics, type of incident, technology use, location of offense, and resulting disciplinary actions by schools and law enforcement. These analyses showed that offenders were most often male and general education teachers, with approximately a quarter identified as athletic coaches. Offenders' average age was 36 years, while the average age of victims was 15. More than half of incidents took place at school or school-related events. Results also showed that school employee sexual misconduct incidents most often involved physical contact; however, technology (i.e., cell phones, computers, cameras/video recorders, and storage devices) played an important role in three out of four cases. Finally, analyses of the criminal and school-related consequences showed that over half of offenders were placed on administrative leave or resigned immediately following their arrest and almost all were convicted of their crimes. Additional findings concerning this topic are also reported in this article.

Using Standardized Test Scores to Include General Cognitive Ability in Education Research and Policy

In education research and education policy, much attention is paid to schools, curricula, and teachers, but little attention is paid to the characteristics of students. Differences in general cognitive ability (g) are often overlooked as a source of important variance among schools and in outcomes among students within schools. Standardized test scores such as the SAT and ACT are reasonably good proxies for g and are available for most incoming college students. Though the idea of g being important in education is quite old, we present contemporary evidence that colleges and universities in the United States vary considerably in the average cognitive ability of their students, which correlates strongly with other methods (including international methods) of ranking colleges. We also show that these g differences are reflected in the extent to which graduates of colleges are represented in various high-status and high-income occupations. Finally, we show how including individual-level measures of cognitive ability can substantially increase the statistical power of experiments designed to measure educational treatment effects. We conclude that education policy researchers should give more consideration to the concept of individual differences in cognitive ability as well as other factors.

What is Diverse Enough? How "Intentionally Diverse" Charter Schools Recruit and Retain Students

School choice has the potential to be a tool for desegregation, but research suggests that choice more often exacerbates segregation than remedies it. In the past several years, hundreds of 'intentionally diverse' charter schools have opened across the country, potentially countering the link between charter schools and segregation. Yet, these schools raise important questions about choice, segregation, and equity. For instance: how do leaders of diverse charter schools prioritize diversity in decisions about location, marketing, and recruitment? What are the implications of these diversity efforts for equity, especially within competitive and marketized educational contexts? We explore the concrete recruiting and marketing strategies schools used to build and retain their diverse communities, drawing on qualitative data from New Orleans, LA and Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN. We identify key strategies used by school leaders, but also note that many strategies were ad-hoc and experimental. Furthermore, we note that schools often did not articulate their goals for diversity, making them susceptible to external pressures that might refocus attention away from equity and diversity, or allow groups with more power to shape agendas within the school. Finally, we find that gentrification and widening economic inequities threatened schools' efforts to recruit and maintain a diverse student body. We discuss implications for leaders of diverse charter schools and other leaders seeking to diversify their student bodies, as well as policymakers and charter authorizers.

Rethinking Teacher Turnover: Longitudinal Measures of Instability in Schools

While there is a robust literature examining the patterns and causes of teacher turnover, few articles to date have critically examined the measures of turnover used in these studies. Yet, an assessment of the way turnover is measured is important, as the measures become the means by which the "problem" of turnover becomes defined and its varying dimensions understood. In this conceptual essay, we outline a typology of teacher turnover measures, discussing both measures used in existing teacher turnover literature as well as new measures that we have developed. We illustrate each of the measures using 10 years of administrative data from Texas. We discuss how the measures can help illuminate different ways in which staff instability can affect schools and identify schools that suffer from particularly severe staffing issues. We conclude with implications for policymakers and researchers who may seek to apply these measures to future empirical studies.

Work-Education Mismatch: An Endogenous Theory of Professionalization

We model the education-workforce pipeline and offer an endogenous theory of professionalization and ever-higher degree attainment. We introduce two mechanisms that act on the education enterprise, causing the number of educated people to increase dramatically with relatively short-term changes in the job market. Using our illustrative dynamic model, we argue that the system is susceptible to small changes and the introduced self-driving growth engines are adequate to over-incentivize degree attainment. We also show that the mechanisms magnify effects of short-term recessions or technological changes, and create long-term waves of mismatch between workforce and jobs. The implication of the theory is degree inflation, magnified pressures on those with lower degrees, underemployment, and job market mismatch and inefficiency.

Reforming Preschools and Schools

Compared with their higher-income counterparts, children growing up in low-income families in the United States typically complete less schooling, report worse health, and work and earn less in adulthood. Moreover, changes in the American economy over the last 40 years have raised the level of skills and qualifications that children need to obtain a good middle-class job, as well as making it much more difficult for children from low-income families to attend schools that support their learning of these skills. We first review strategies used in the past to improve K-12 schooling-including investing more money, introducing more accountability, and putting in place new governance structures (eg, charter schools)-and show why these strategies have been relatively ineffective. Drawing on the research literature and case studies, we then describe education reform strategies for prekindergarten programs and for elementary, middle, and high schools that may help meet these challenges. All of the initiatives described in our case studies provide ample opportunities for teachers and school leaders to improve their skills through coaching and other professional development activities; incorporate sensible systems of accountability, including requiring teachers to open their classrooms to the scrutiny of colleagues and school leaders and to work with their colleagues to improve their teaching practices; and incorporate high academic standards, such as those described in the Common Core State Standards. By focusing directly on improving teaching and promoting learning, these successful initiatives have boosted the achievement of low-income children. They show that it is indeed possible to make a real difference in the life chances of low-income children.

The Timing of School Transitions and Early Adolescent Problem Behavior

This longitudinal study investigates whether rural adolescents who transition to a new school in sixth grade have higher levels of risky behavior than adolescents who transition in seventh grade. Our findings indicate that later school transitions had little effect on problem behavior between sixth and ninth grades. Cross-sectional analyses found a small number of temporary effects of transition timing on problem behavior: Spending an additional year in elementary school was associated with higher levels of deviant behavior in the Fall of Grade 6 and higher levels of antisocial peer associations in Grade 8. However, transition effects were not consistent across waves and latent growth curve models found no effects of transition timing on the trajectory of problem behavior. We discuss policy implications and compare our findings with other research on transition timing.

Comprehensive School Reform: Meta-Analytic Evidence of Black-White Achievement Gap Narrowing

This meta-analysis extends a previous review of the achievement effects of comprehensive school reform (CSR) programs (Borman, Hewes, Overman, & Brown, 2003). That meta-analysis observed significant effects of well endowed and well-researched programs, but it did not account for race/ethnicity. This article synthesizes 34 cohort or quasi-experimental outcomes of studies that incorporated the policy-critical characteristic of race/ethnicity.

FINDINGS

compared with matched traditional schools, the black-white achievement gap narrowed significantly more among students in CSR schools. In addition, the aggregate effects were large, substantially to completely eliminating the achievement gap between African American and non-Hispanic white students in elementary and middle schools. Title I policies before or after the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 seem to have had essentially no impact on the black-white achievement gap. Curricular and testing mandates along with the threat of sanctions without concomitant resource supports seem to have failed. This study suggests that educational achievement inequities need not be America's destiny. It seems that they could be eliminated through concerted political will and ample resource commitments to evidence-based educational programs.