The potential influence of the digital food retail environment on health: A systematic scoping review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

The digital food retail environment (defined in this study as a digital platform, app or website where food can be purchased by individuals for personal consumption) is an emerging component of the wider food system. We aimed to systematically search and review the literature to understand the potential influence of the digital food retail environment on population diets and health.

METHODS

Four databases (across health, business, and marketing) and grey literature were searched using terms relating to "food and beverages," "digital," and "purchasing." Identified studies were included if they examined any aspect of the digital food retail environment where outcomes were examined with a health-related focus and were published before September 2023. All study designs were included (quantitative, qualitative, observational, and experimental). Reviews and conference abstracts were excluded.

RESULTS

We identified 21,382 studies, of which 57 articles were eligible for inclusion. Of the 57 included studies, 30 studies examined online grocery retail, 22 examined online food delivery platforms, and five examined meal kit subscription services. Of the 30 studies examining online grocery retail, six studies reported that customers believed they purchased fewer unhealthy food and beverages when shopping online, compared with shopping in-store. Nevertheless, customers also reported that their ability to choose healthy foods and beverages was reduced when shopping online due to difficulty in product comparison. Studies that examined online food delivery platforms primarily found that they promoted unhealthy foods and beverages more often than healthy options, through extensive use of marketing practices such as price discounts and images, and that unhealthy food offerings on these platforms dominate. Meal kit subscription services offered mostly healthy meals, with studies suggesting that these types of services may help individuals alleviate some of their "mental load" and stress related to cooking meals for their families.

CONCLUSIONS

The literature describing the digital food retail environment was found to be diverse, with different aspects having potential to impact health in different ways. Some evidence suggests that online grocery retail and meal kit subscription services may have positive population dietary impacts, whereas online food delivery platforms appear likely to promote unhealthy food purchasing. However, the current evidence base is fragmented, with many knowledge gaps. Further research is required to understand the influence of the digital food retail environment on population diets and how these environments can be designed to support healthy food choices.

Which variables and determinants influence online food delivery consumption among workers and students? Results from the DELIvery Choice In OUr Society (DELICIOUS) cross-sectional study

Introduction

Online food delivery (OFD) applications provide easy access to food, eliminating the need for cooking and meal planning. However, they predominantly promote processed and calorie-dense foods, potentially impacting diet and health. This study aimed to describe the use of OFD services in a sample of Italian workers and students, to explore potential determinants of OFD usage and to assess possible differences in use between these two categories.

Methods

Data were collected through an online survey (convenience sampling) distributed on social media platforms between July 12, 2022, and February 1, 2023. The sample included individuals aged 18 and above, currently residing in Italy. The sample was stratified according to worker/student status. Descriptive analyses were performed on key variables. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the effects of variables on OFD usage, treated as a dichotomous variable (usage or non-usage).

Results

This study analyzed 3,502 questionnaires (2,594 from workers and 908 from students) after excluding 323 non-student and non-worker responses. Positive associations with OFD use included higher income, remote working, smoking, elevated BMI, depression risk, and impulsive buying among workers, while being female, frequent screen-watching during meals, daily smoking, higher BMI, and impulsive buying were associated with OFD use among students. Factors negatively associated with OFD use included older age (workers and students), living in suburbs (workers and students) or in an outline town (workers), being single (workers and students), adhering to the Mediterranean diet (students), having low health literacy (students), and job dissatisfaction (workers).

Discussion

OFD consumption was associated with some risky behaviors and conditions, such as high BMI or smoking, suggesting that it might be influenced by individual tendencies. Healthier habits, such as physical activity, did not significantly impact OFD usage, especially among workers. Whereas, among students, factors such as low health literacy and better eating habits were associated with less use of OFD, so that they could be more prone to use OFD in a measured way. Further research is needed to better understand potential associations between OFD and risky habits, as well as its role in promoting access to healthy food in underserved areas.

Using Mobile Ecological Momentary Assessment to Understand Consumption and Context Around Online Food Delivery Use: Pilot Feasibility and Acceptability Study

BACKGROUND

Mobile ecological momentary assessment (EMA) is a powerful tool for collecting real-time and contextual data from individuals. As our reliance on online technologies to increase convenience accelerates, the way we access food is changing. Online food delivery (OFD) services may further encourage unhealthy food consumption habits, given the high availability of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods. We used EMA to understand the real-time effects of OFD on individuals' food choices and consumption behaviors.

OBJECTIVE

The primary aims of this pilot study were to assess the feasibility and acceptability of using EMA in young users of OFD and compare 2 different EMA sampling methods. The secondary aims were to gather data on OFD events and their context and examine any correlations between demographics, lifestyle chronic disease risk factors, and OFD use.

METHODS

This study used EMA methods via a mobile app (mEMASense, ilumivu Inc). Existing users of OFD services aged 16 to 35 years in Australia who had access to a smartphone were recruited. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: signal-contingent or event-contingent. The signal-contingent group was monitored over 3 days between 7 AM and 10 PM. They received 5 prompts each day to complete EMA surveys via the smartphone app. In contrast, the event-contingent group was monitored over 7 days and was asked to self-report any instance of OFD.

RESULTS

A total of 102 participants were analyzed, with 53 participants in the signal-contingent group and 49 participants in the event-contingent group. Compliance rates, indicating the feasibility of signal-contingent and event-contingent protocols, were similar at 72.5% (574/792) and 73.2% (251/343), respectively. Feedback from the participants suggested that the EMA app was not easy to use, which affected their acceptability of the study. Participants in the event-contingent group were 3.53 (95% CI 1.52-8.17) times more likely to have had an OFD event captured during the study. Pizza (23/124, 18.5%) and fried chicken (18/124, 14.5%) comprised a bulk of the 124 OFD orders captured. Most orders were placed at home (98/124, 79%) for 1 person (68/124, 54.8%). Age (incidence rate ratio 0.95, 95% CI 0.91-0.99; P=.03) and dependents (incidence rate ratio 2.01, 95% CI 1.16-3.49; P=.01) were significantly associated with the number of OFD events in a week after adjusting for gender, socioeconomic status, diet quality score, and perceived stress levels.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study showed that EMA using an event-contingent sampling approach may be a better method to capture OFD events and context than signal-contingent sampling. The compliance rates showed that both sampling methods were feasible and acceptable. Although the findings from this study have gathered some insight on the consumption and context of OFD in young people, further studies are required to develop targeted interventions.

Nutritional Content of Popular Menu Items from Online Food Delivery Applications in Bangkok, Thailand: Are They Healthy?

The rise in online food delivery (OFD) applications has increased access to a myriad of ready-to-eat options, which may lead to unhealthier food choices. Our objective was to assess the nutritional profile of popular menu items available through OFD applications in Bangkok, Thailand. We selected the top 40 popular menu items from three of the most commonly used OFD applications in 2021. Each menu item was collected from the top 15 restaurants in Bangkok for a total of 600 items. Nutritional contents were analysed by a professional food laboratory in Bangkok. Descriptive statistics were employed to describe the nutritional content of each menu item, including energy, fat, sodium, and sugar content. We also compared nutritional content to the World Health Organization's recommended daily intake values. The majority of menu items were considered unhealthy, with 23 of the 25 ready-to-eat menu items containing more than the recommended sodium intake for adults. Eighty percent of all sweets contained approximately 1.5 times more sugar than the daily recommendation. Displaying nutrition facts in the OFD applications for menu items and providing consumers with filters for healthier options are required to reduce overconsumption and improve consumer food choice.

A Thematic Review on Using Food Delivery Services during the Pandemic: Insights for the Post-COVID-19 Era

The food delivery service is the most typical and visible example of online-to-offline (O2O) commerce. More consumers are using food delivery services for various reasons during the COVID-19 pandemic, making this business model viral worldwide. In the post-pandemic era, offering food delivery services will become the new normal for restaurants. Although a growing number of publications have focused on consumer behavior in this issue, no review paper has addressed current research and industry trends. Thus, this paper aims to review the literature published from 2020 to the present (October 2022) on consumers' use of food delivery services during the pandemic. A thematic review was conducted, with 40 articles searched from Scopus and Web of Science being included. Quantitative findings showed current research trends, and thematic analyses formed eight themes of factors influencing consumer behavior: (1) technical and utilitarian factors, (2) system-related attributes, (3) emotional and hedonic factors, (4) individual characteristics, (5) service quality, (6) risk-related factors, (7) social factors, and (8) food-related attributes. The paper also emphasizes COVID-19-related influences and suggests promising future research directions. The results offer insights into industry practices and starting points for future research.

Unhealthy Food at Your Fingertips: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Nutritional Quality of Restaurants and Takeaway Outlets on an Online Food Delivery Platform in New Zealand

Online food delivery (OFD) platforms have become increasingly popular due to advanced technology, which is changing the way consumers purchase food prepared outside of the home. There is limited research investigating the healthiness of the digital food environment and its influence on consumer choice and dietary behaviours. This study is the first to examine the nutritional quality and marketing attributes of menu items from popular independent and franchise restaurants and takeaway outlets on New Zealand’s market leading OFD platform (UberEATS®). A total of 374 popular independent and franchise restaurants and takeaway outlets were identified to form a database of complete menus and marketing attributes. All 25,877 menu items were classified into 38 food and beverage categories based on the Australian Dietary Guidelines. Of complete menus, 73.3% (18,955/25,877) were discretionary. Thirty-six percent (9419/25,877) were discretionary cereal-based mixed meals, the largest of the 38 categories. Discretionary menu items were more likely to be categorized as most popular (OR: 2.0, 95% CI 1.7−2.2), accompanied by a photo (OR: 1.7, 95% CI 1.6−1.8), and offered as a value bundle (OR: 4.6, 95% CI 3.2−6.8). Two of the three discretionary mixed meal categories were significantly less expensive than their healthier counterparts (p < 0.001). The overwhelming availability and promotion of discretionary choices offered by restaurants and takeaway outlets on OFD platforms have implications for public health policy. Further research to explore direct associations between nutritional quality and consumers’ dietary choices is required.

Reducing traffic violations in the online food delivery industry-A case study in Xi'an City, China

Online food delivery (OFD) is one of the top industries in the Online-to-offline (O2O) commerce sector. Deliverymen need to complete a large number of delivery orders in limited default time every day, which cause high working stress to them. Therefore, a high level of traffic violations and crashes by deliverymen and corresponding negative impact on public safety are observed. To reduce traffic violations by deliverymen and resulting crashes, a hierarchical online food delivery framework is proposed, which is based on data from questionnaire surveys conducted in Xi'an City, China. The study includes the analysis of the root cause correlated with traffic violations during online food delivery as part of an empirical study on the priority delivery fee by applying a conditional price sensitivity measurement (PSM) model. The feasibility and rationality of the framework are further investigated by using cross analysis of urban dwellers' occupation, income, and commuting cost. The results identify that, through rationally shunting the demand of online food delivery, prolonging the default delivery duration, and providing diversified delivery services, the proposed hierarchical online food delivery mechanism is able to relieve the stress of deliverymen during peak hours of food requests. This reduces the willingness of deliverymen to engage in traffic violations, and other risky behaviors during food delivery trips. All of which facilitate high-quality and timely online food delivery service while enabling improved safety of deliverymen and others as part of enhanced public safety and health.

Online food delivery companies' performance and consumers expectations during Covid-19: An investigation using machine learning approach

Online food delivery (OFD) businesses flourished during COVID-19; however, OFD companies experienced different challenges and customers' expectations. This paper uses social media data to explore OFD companies' performance and customers' expectations during the COVID-19 pandemic. The most important topics in developed and developing countries are identified using machine learning. Results show that customers in India are more concerned about social responsibility, while financial aspects are more important in the US. Overall, customers in India are more satisfied with OFD companies during the COVID-19 pandemic than the US customers. We further find that factors such as OFD companies' brand, market size, country, and COVID-19 waves play a crucial role in moderating customer sentiment. The results of the study offer several managerial insights.

Understanding the Online Environment for the Delivery of Food, Alcohol and Tobacco: An Exploratory Analysis of 'Dark Kitchens' and Rapid Grocery Delivery Services

Online spaces are increasingly important in the sale of food, alcohol and tobacco. This analysis focuses on two developments in online food delivery: delivery-only 'dark kitchens' and rapid grocery delivery services (RGDS), with the aim to understand and assess the availability of health harming and health promoting products through these services. Data was collected for one metropolitan local authority in London, UK, using publicly available online sources. Being explorative in nature, the analysis includes descriptive statistics and qualitative assessment. Three dark kitchens (renting kitchens to 116 food businesses), three grocery delivery apps, and 76 grocery businesses available through online delivery platforms were identified. Most businesses renting dark kitchen space were 'virtual restaurants' (52%) selling fast food (47%) or dessert (21%) through online delivery platforms. RGDS sold a variety of items, with a focus on pre-packaged foods high in fat, salt and sugar, alcoholic beverages and tobacco. These items were also most likely to be promoted through offers and promotional language. Fruits and vegetables were less commonly available and mainly on grocery delivery apps. Online delivery services increase the temporal and geographic availability and promotion of many unhealthy products. Research expanding on the geographic area of interest is needed.

Influencing Factors of the Continuous Usage Intention of Consumers of Online Food Delivery Platform Based on an Information System Success Model

Online food delivery (OFD) has gradually become a development trend in the catering industry. However, the homogenization of the principal OFD platforms is becoming increasingly obvious, and there is an urgent need to explore the continuous usage intentions of consumers of the OFD platform. Unlike previous studies, this study employs DeLone and McLean's information system (IS) success model as the theoretical framework and constructs the influencing factors model of the continued usage intentions of users of the OFD platform from three aspects, namely, service, system, and information quality. Participants (N = 361) completed a questionnaire assessing their continuous usage intentions of the OFD platform, and the results were analyzed using a structural equation model (SEM). Service worker, platform quality, and content consistency have significant positive effects on the trust in the platform and satisfaction of consumers. Both the trust in the platform and satisfaction of consumers have a positive impact on their continuous usage intentions. We also explored the mediating effect of the trust in the platform and satisfaction of consumers. This study adds to the academic literature and practical implications for the continuous usage intention of consumers. This study discusses the influencing factors and formation mechanism of the continuous usage intention of consumers and proposes a model of the continuous usage intention of consumers of OFD platforms. Moreover, OFD platforms can make differentiation strategies more targeted and eliminate the dilemma of homogenization competition of OFD platforms.

Factors affecting customer intention to use online food delivery services before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

With the emerging popularity of online food delivery (OFD) services, this research examined predictors affecting customer intention to use OFD services amid the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. Specifically, Study 1 examined the moderating effect of the pandemic on the relationship between six predictors (perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, price saving benefit, time saving benefit, food safety risk perception, and trust) and OFD usage intention, and Study 2 extended the model by adding customer perceptions of COVID-19 (perceived severity and vulnerability) during the pandemic. Study 1 showed that all of the predictors except food safety risk perception significantly affected OFD usage intention, but no moderation effect of COVID-19 was found. In Study 2, while perceived severity and vulnerability had no significant impact on OFD usage intention, the altered effects of socio-demographic variables during the COVID-19 pandemic were found. Theoretical and managerial implications are provided.

Whole-Genome Analysis of Salmonella enterica Serovar Enteritidis Isolates in Outbreak Linked to Online Food Delivery, Shenzhen, China, 2018

In July 2018, an outbreak of 10 cases of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis infection occurred in Shenzhen, China. Outbreak investigation complemented by whole-genome sequencing traced the source to food ordered online. Our investigation highlights the role of online food delivery platforms as a new mode of foodborne disease transmission.

Hunger for Home Delivery: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Nutritional Quality of Complete Menus on an Online Food Delivery Platform in Australia

Online food delivery (OFD) platforms have changed how consumers purchase food prepared outside of home by capitalising on convenience and smartphone technology. Independent food outlets encompass a substantial proportion of partnering outlets, but their offerings’ nutritional quality is understudied. Little is also known as to how OFD platforms influence consumer choice. This study evaluated the nutritional quality and marketing attributes of offerings from independent takeaway outlets available on Sydney’s market-leading OFD platform (UberEats^®). Complete menus and marketing attributes from 202 popular outlets were collected using web scraping. All 13841 menu items were classified into 38 food and beverage categories based on the Australian Dietary Guidelines. Of complete menus, 80.5% (11,139/13,841) were discretionary and 42.3% (5849/13,841) were discretionary cereal-based mixed meals, the largest of the 38 categories. Discretionary menu items were more likely to be categorised as most popular (OR: 2.5, 95% CI 1.9–3.2), accompanied by an image (OR: 1.3, 95% CI 1.2–1.5) and offered as a value bundle (OR: 6.5, 95% CI 4.8–8.9). Two of the three discretionary food categories were more expensive than their healthier Five Food Group counterparts (p < 0.02). The ubiquity of discretionary choices offered by independent takeaways and the marketing attributes employed by OFD platforms has implications for public health policy. Further research on the contribution of discretionary choices and marketing attributes to nutritional intakes is warranted.

Factors Affecting Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty in Online Food Delivery Service during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Its Relation with Open Innovation

Online food delivery service (OFDS) has been widely utilized during the new normal of the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in a developing country such as Indonesia. The purpose of this study was to determine factors influencing customer satisfaction and loyalty in OFDS during the new normal of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia by utilizing the extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) approach. A total of 253 respondents voluntarily participated and answered 65 questions. Structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that hedonic motivation (HM) was found to have the highest effect on customer satisfaction, followed by price (P), information quality (IQ), and promotion (PRO). Interestingly, this study found out that usability factors, such as navigational design (ND) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) were not significant to customer satisfaction and loyalty in OFDS during the new normal of COVID-19. This study can be the theoretical foundation that could be very beneficial for OFDS investors, IT engineers, and even academicians. Finally, this study can be applied and extended to determine factors influencing customer satisfaction and loyalty in OFDS during the new normal of COVID-19 in other countries.

Junk Food on Demand: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Nutritional Quality of Popular Online Food Delivery Outlets in Australia and New Zealand

The demand for convenience and the increasing role of digital technology in everyday life has fueled the use of online food delivery services (OFD’s), of which young people are the largest users globally. OFD’s are disrupting traditional food environments, yet research evaluating the public health implications of such services is lacking. We evaluated the characteristics and nutritional quality of popular food outlets on a market-leading platform (UberEATS^®) in a cross-sectional observational study conducted in two international cities: Sydney (Australia) and Auckland (New Zealand). A systematic search using publicly available population-level data was used to identify geographical areas with above-average concentrations (>30%) of young people (15–34-years). A standardized data extraction protocol was used to identify the ten most popular food outlets within each area. The nutritional quality of food outlets was assessed using the Food Environment Score (FES) (range: −10 ‘unhealthiest’ to 10 ‘healthiest’). Additionally, the most popular menu items from each food outlet were classified as discretionary or core foods/beverages according to the Australian Dietary Guidelines. The majority of popular food outlets were classified as ‘unhealthy’ (FES range −10 to −5; 73.5%, 789/1074) and were predominately takeaway franchise stores (59.6%, 470/789, e.g., McDonald’s^®). 85.9% of all popular menu items were discretionary (n = 4958/5769). This study highlights the pervasion and accessibility of discretionary foods on OFD’s. This study demonstrated that the most popular food outlets on the market-leading online food delivery service are unhealthy and popular menu items are mostly discretionary foods; facilitating the purchase of foods of poor nutritional quality. Consideration of OFD’s in public health nutrition strategies and policies in critical.