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Ashwini MA, Pattanaik A, Mani RS. Recent updates on laboratory diagnosis of rabies. Indian J Med Res 2024; 159:48-61. [PMID: 38376376 PMCID: PMC10954107 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_131_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a lethal viral disease transmitted through the bite of rabid animals. India has a high burden of rabies, contributing to a significant proportion of the global deaths. However, under-reporting of the disease is prevalent due to lack of laboratory confirmation. Laboratory diagnosis of rabies plays a crucial role in differentiating the disease from clinical mimics, initiation of appropriate care, implementing infection control measures and informing disease surveillance. This review provides an overview of the recent advancements in laboratory diagnosis of rabies, aimed at updating physicians involved in diagnosis and management of rabies cases in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. A. Ashwini
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Amrita Pattanaik
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
- Department of Virus Research, Manipal Institute of Virology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Reeta S. Mani
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
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de Lima JS, Mori E, Kmetiuk LB, Biondo LM, Brandão PE, Biondo AW, Maiorka PC. Cat rabies in Brazil: a growing One Health concern. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1210203. [PMID: 37538269 PMCID: PMC10394693 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1210203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This review of human and cat rabies from 1986 to 2022 has shown mostly AgV3 variant in human cases with 29/45 (64.4%) reports including 23 from bats, four from cats, and two from unknown species, followed by 8/45 (17.8%) of AgV2 variant (all from dogs), 4/45 from marmoset variant (all from Callithrix jacchus), 2/45 samples compatible with wild canid variant (both from Cerdocyon thous), and one/45 of AgV1 variant from a domestic dog. Only one sample of human rabies was not typified, related to bat aggression. In addition, surveillance conducted in the state of São Paulo confirmed the presence of rabies in 7/23,839 cats (0.031%) and 3/106,637 dogs (0.003%) between 2003 and 2013, with a 10:1 overall cat-to-dog positivity ratio. This 10-fold higher infection rate for cat rabies may be explained by cats' hunting habits and predation. In addition, after 28 years of rabies-free status, a new cat rabies case was reported in the city of São Paulo in 2011. The rabid cat lived, along with other pets, in a household located near the largest downtown city park, whose owners presented animal hoarding behavior. Thus, animal hoarders and rescuers, public health agents, animal health professionals, and the general population with contact need to be aware of the risk of bat-borne rabies followed by spillover from cats to humans. In conclusion, cat rabies cases are becoming increasingly important in Brazil. This poses a One Health concern, given the overlapping of human, bat and cat populations within the same predisposed environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Santos de Lima
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Enio Mori
- Pasteur Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Louise Bach Kmetiuk
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Leandro Meneguelli Biondo
- National Institute of the Atlantic Forest (INMA), Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation, Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo, Brazil
| | - Paulo Eduardo Brandão
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Paulo César Maiorka
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Bonaparte SC, Moodie J, Undurraga EA, Wallace RM. Evaluation of country infrastructure as an indirect measure of dog-mediated human rabies deaths. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1147543. [PMID: 37228840 PMCID: PMC10203152 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1147543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Rabies is a neglected disease, primarily due to poor detection stemming from limited surveillance and diagnostic capabilities in most countries. As a result, there is limited ability to monitor and evaluate country, regional, and global progress towards the WHO goal of eliminating human rabies deaths by 2030. There is a need for a low-cost, readily reproducible method of estimating rabies burden and elimination capacity in endemic countries. Methods Publicly available economic, environmental, political, social, public health, and One Health indicators were evaluated to identify variables with strong correlation to country-level rabies burden estimates. A novel index was developed to estimate infrastructural rabies elimination capacity and annual case-burden for dog-mediated rabies virus variant (DMRVV) endemic countries. Findings Five country-level indicators with superior explanatory value represent the novel "STOP-R index:" (1) literacy rate, (2) infant mortality rate, (3) electricity access, (4) political stability, and (5) presence/severity of natural hazards. Based on the STOP-R index, 40,111 (95% CI 25,854-74,344) global human rabies deaths are estimated to occur in 2022 among DMRVV-endemic countries and are projected to decrease to 32,349 (95% CI 21,110-57,019) in 2030. Interpretation The STOP-R index offers a unique means of addressing the data gap and monitoring progress towards eliminating dog-mediated human rabies deaths. Results presented here suggest that factors external to rabies programs influence the successes of rabies elimination, and it is now possible to identify countries exceeding or lagging in expected rabies control and elimination progress based on country infrastructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Bonaparte
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Janae Moodie
- New York University College of Global Public Health, New York, NY, United States
- James A. Ferguson Emerging Infectious Diseases RISE Fellow, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Eduardo A. Undurraga
- Escuela de Gobierno, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research in Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
- Research Center for Integrated Disaster Risk Management (CIGIDEN), Santiago, Chile
| | - Ryan M. Wallace
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
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de Paula Silva N, de Andrade EDA, Cardoso D, Guimarães RCS, Silva MB, Nascimento KKG, Xavier DDA, Abel I. Assessment of crab fishermen's exposure to rabies virus in a typical Amazonian community. Zoonoses Public Health 2021; 68:973-981. [PMID: 34242499 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks of human rabies transmitted by hematophagous bats occurred in 2018 in Pará state, Brazil, eastern Amazon, after 12 years of no record of the disease. Thus, it is necessary to understand the epidemiological characteristics of these attacks to protect the local population. This study aimed to characterize the bat bite populations in the municipality of São João da Ponta, Pará State, Brazil, in 2013-2015. The Notifiable Diseases Information System (SINAN) database was used to identify the five individuals who sought medical care during the study period (seeds). Other individuals who were attacked during the same period but did not seek medical care (n = 61) were reached by snowball sampling, and a descriptive analysis was performed based on information obtained from questionnaires. Majority of the interviewees were men (92.4%; 61/66) and adults aged 20-50 years (69.9%; 46/66) and had <4 years of formal school education (86.3%; 57/66). Additionally, most of them were rural residents (92.4%; 61/66) and crab fishermen (79.3%; 53/66). The interviewees (92.4%; 61/66) identified mangroves of the Mãe Grande de Curuçá extractive reserve, where groups of fishermen sometimes gather for several days for crab fishing, often living in improvised dwellings without walls and covered by tarps or straw (88.8%; 56/66), conducive to attacks by vampire bats. Overall, 42.4% (28/66) of the participants had been bitten more than four times throughout their life. The median number of attacks over the participant's lifetime was 3.11 (range, 1-23). Participants were unaware of the risk of contracting rabies from the bite (95.4%; 65/66). These results suggest that vampire bat attacks are essentially an occupational hazard in the study region. Moreover, for each reported attack, there were at least 12.2 unreported cases. Thus, the study highlights the need to develop strategies for prophylactic treatment of this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nailde de Paula Silva
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Geoprocessing (EpiGeo), Post Graduate Program in Animal Health in the Amazon, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Castanhal, Brazil
| | - Elane de Araújo de Andrade
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Geoprocessing (EpiGeo), Post Graduate Program in Animal Health in the Amazon, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Castanhal, Brazil
| | - Denis Cardoso
- Farming Institute of Minas Gerais (IMA), Cidade Administrativa Tancredo, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ruth Cavalcante Silva Guimarães
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Geoprocessing (EpiGeo), Post Graduate Program in Animal Health in the Amazon, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Castanhal, Brazil
| | - Mateus Borges Silva
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Geoprocessing (EpiGeo), Post Graduate Program in Animal Health in the Amazon, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Castanhal, Brazil
| | - Kelly Karoline Gomes Nascimento
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Geoprocessing (EpiGeo), Post Graduate Program in Animal Health in the Amazon, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Castanhal, Brazil
| | - Diego de Arruda Xavier
- Paraense Emílio Goeldi Museum- MPEG, Coordination of Earth Sciences and Ecology (COCTE), CNPq Institutional Training Program Scholarship, Belém, Brazil
| | - Isis Abel
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Geoprocessing (EpiGeo), Post Graduate Program in Animal Health in the Amazon, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Castanhal, Brazil
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Robardet E, Bosnjak D, Englund L, Demetriou P, Martín PR, Cliquet F. Zero Endemic Cases of Wildlife Rabies (Classical Rabies Virus, RABV) in the European Union by 2020: An Achievable Goal. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:E124. [PMID: 31575054 PMCID: PMC6958318 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4040124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The elimination of rabies transmitted by Classical Rabies Virus (RABV) in the European Union (EU) is now in sight. Scientific advances have made it possible to develop oral vaccination for wildlife by incorporating rabies vaccines in baits for foxes. At the start of the 1980s, aerial distribution of vaccine baits was tested and found to be a promising tool. The EU identified rabies elimination as a priority, and provided considerable financial and technical resources to the infected EU Member States, allowing regular and large-scale rabies eradication programs based on aerial vaccination. The EU also provides support to non-EU countries in its eastern and south eastern borders. The key elements of the rabies eradication programs are oral rabies vaccination (ORV), quality control of vaccines and control of their distribution, rabies surveillance and monitoring of the vaccination effectiveness. EU Member States and non-EU countries with EU funded eradication programs counted on the technical support of the rabies subgroup of the Task Force for monitoring disease eradication and of the EU Reference Laboratory (EURL) for rabies. In 2018, eight rabies cases induced by classical rabies virus RABV (six in wild animals and two in domestic animals) were detected in three EU Member States, representing a sharp decrease compared to the situation in 2010, where there were more than 1500 cases in nine EU Member States. The goal is to reach zero cases in wildlife and domestic animals in the EU by 2020, a target that now seems achievable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Robardet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire de Pixérécourt, CS 40009, 54220 Malzéville, France.
| | - Dean Bosnjak
- European Commission-Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Lena Englund
- European Commission-Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Panayiotis Demetriou
- European Commission-Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Pedro Rosado Martín
- European Commission-Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Florence Cliquet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire de Pixérécourt, CS 40009, 54220 Malzéville, France.
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Pieracci EG, Scott TP, Coetzer A, Athman M, Mutembei A, Kidane AH, Bekele M, Ayalew G, Ntegeyibizaza S, Assenga J, Markalio G, Munyua P, Nel LH, Blanton J. The Formation of the Eastern Africa Rabies Network: A Sub-Regional Approach to Rabies Elimination. Trop Med Infect Dis 2017; 2:29. [PMID: 28845466 PMCID: PMC5568643 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed2030029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
International rabies networks have been formed in many of the canine-rabies endemic regions around the world to create unified and directed regional approaches towards elimination. The aim of the first sub-regional Eastern Africa rabies network meeting, which included Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Uganda, was to discuss how individual country strategies could be coordinated to address the unique challenges that are faced within the network. The Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination and the Global Dog Rabies Elimination Pathway tool were used to stimulate discussion and planning to achieve the elimination of canine-mediated human rabies by 2030. Our analysis estimated a total dog population of 18.3 million dogs in the Eastern Africa region. The current dog vaccination coverage was estimated to be approximately 5% (915,000 dogs), with an estimated 4910 vaccinators available. Assuming that every vaccinator performs rabies vaccination, this equated to each vaccinator currently vaccinating 186 dogs per year, whilst the target would be to vaccinate 2609 dogs every year for the community to reach 70% coverage. In order to achieve the World Health Organization-recommended 70% vaccination coverage, an additional 11 million dogs need to be vaccinated each year, pointing to an average annual shortfall of $ 23 million USD in current spending to achieve elimination by 2030 across the region. Improved vaccination efficiency within the region could be achieved by improving logistics and/or incorporating multiple vaccination methods to increase vaccinator efficiency, and could serve to reduce the financial burden associated with rabies elimination. Regional approaches to rabies control are of value, as neighboring countries can share their unique challenges while, at the same time, common approaches can be developed and resource-saving strategies can be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily G. Pieracci
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA;
| | - Terence P. Scott
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, 0028 Pretoria, South Africa; (A.C.); (L.H.N.)
- Global Alliance for Rabies Control SA NPC, Erasmus Forum A434, South Erasmus Rand, 0181 Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Andre Coetzer
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, 0028 Pretoria, South Africa; (A.C.); (L.H.N.)
- Global Alliance for Rabies Control SA NPC, Erasmus Forum A434, South Erasmus Rand, 0181 Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Mwatondo Athman
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Kenya Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya; (M.A.); (A.M.)
| | - Arithi Mutembei
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Kenya Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya; (M.A.); (A.M.)
| | | | - Meseret Bekele
- Ethiopian Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;
| | - Girma Ayalew
- Ethiopian Ministry of Wildlife and Conservation, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;
| | | | - Justine Assenga
- Tanzania Directorate of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar es Salam, Tanzania;
| | | | - Peninah Munyua
- Division of Global Health Protection, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya;
| | - Louis H. Nel
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, 0028 Pretoria, South Africa; (A.C.); (L.H.N.)
- Global Alliance for Rabies Control SA NPC, Erasmus Forum A434, South Erasmus Rand, 0181 Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jesse Blanton
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA;
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