1
|
Iwabuchi K, Satoh M, Yoshino K, Ishimori N. Recent advances regarding the potential roles of invariant natural killer T cells in cardiovascular diseases with immunological and inflammatory backgrounds. Int Immunol 2024:dxae019. [PMID: 38557824 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxae019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, which bear αβ-type T cell antigen-receptors, recognize glycolipid antigens in a cluster of differentiation 1d (CD1d)-restricted manner. Regarding these cells, the unique modes of thymic selection and maturation elucidate innateness, irrespective of them also being members of the adaptive immune system as a T cell. iNKT cells develop and differentiate into NKT1 [interferon γ (IFN-γγ-producing], NKT2 [interleukin 4 (IL-4)/IL-13-producing], or NKT17 (IL-17-producing) subsets in the thymus. After egress, NKT10 (IL-10-producing), follicular helper NKT (NKTfh; IL-21-producing), and regulatory NKT (NKTreg) subsets emerge following stimulation in the periphery. Moreover, iNKT cells have been shown to possess several physiological or pathological roles. iNKT cells exhibit dual alleviating or aggravating roles in experimentally induced immune and/or inflammatory diseases in mice. These findings indicate that the modulation of iNKT cells can be employed for therapeutic use or prevention of human diseases. In this review, we discuss the potential roles of iNKT cells in the development of immune/inflammatory diseases of the cardiovascular system, with emphasis on atherosclerosis, aortic aneurysms, and cardiac remodeling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Masashi Satoh
- Department of Immunology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, 252-0374, Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Yoshino
- Department of Anesthesiology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, 252-0374, Japan
| | - Naoki Ishimori
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0638, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Prosser A, Huang WH, Liu L, Dart S, Watson M, de Boer B, Kendrew P, Lucas A, Larma-Cornwall I, Gaudieri S, Jeffrey GP, Delriviere L, Kallies A, Lucas M. Dynamic changes to tissue-resident immunity after MHC-matched and MHC-mismatched solid organ transplantation. Cell Rep 2021; 35:109141. [PMID: 34010637 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The heterogeneous pool of tissue-resident lymphocytes in solid organs mediates infection responses and supports tissue integrity and repair. Their vital functions in normal physiology suggest an important role in solid organ transplantation; however, their detailed examination in this context has not been performed. Here, we report the fate of multiple lymphocyte subsets, including T, B, and innate lymphoid cells, after murine liver and heart transplantation. In major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-matched transplantation, donor lymphocytes are retained in liver grafts and peripheral lymphoid organs of heart and liver transplant recipients. In MHC-mismatched transplantation, increased infiltration of the graft by recipient cells and depletion of donor lymphocytes occur, which can be prevented by removal of recipient T and B cells. Recipient lymphocytes fail to recreate the native organs' phenotypically diverse tissue-resident lymphocyte composition, even in MHC-matched models. These post-transplant changes may leave grafts vulnerable to infection and impair long-term graft function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Prosser
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Wen Hua Huang
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Western Australian Liver and Kidney Transplant Service, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Liu Liu
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Sarah Dart
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Monalyssa Watson
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Bastiaan de Boer
- Department of Anatomical Pathology, Pathwest Laboratory Medicine, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Philip Kendrew
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Pathwest Laboratory Medicine, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Andrew Lucas
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Irma Larma-Cornwall
- Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Silvana Gaudieri
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Gary P Jeffrey
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Western Australian Liver and Kidney Transplant Service, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Department of Gastroenterology, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Luc Delriviere
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Western Australian Liver and Kidney Transplant Service, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Axel Kallies
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Michaela Lucas
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Department of Immunology, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital and Pathwest Laboratory Medicine, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
The immune system has coevolved with extensive microbial communities living on barrier sites that are collectively known as the microbiota. It is increasingly clear that microbial antigens and metabolites engage in a constant dialogue with the immune system, leading to microbiota-specific immune responses that occur in the absence of inflammation. This form of homeostatic immunity encompasses many arms of immunity, including B cell responses, innate-like T cells, and conventional T helper and T regulatory responses. In this review we summarize known examples of innate-like T cell and adaptive immunity to the microbiota, focusing on fundamental aspects of commensal immune recognition across different barrier sites. Furthermore, we explore how this cross talk is established during development, emphasizing critical temporal windows that establish long-term immune function. Finally, we highlight how dysregulation of immunity to the microbiota can lead to inflammation and disease, and we pinpoint outstanding questions and controversies regarding immune system-microbiota interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eduard Ansaldo
- Metaorganism Immunity Section, Laboratory of Host Immunity and Microbiome, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA;
| | - Taylor K Farley
- Metaorganism Immunity Section, Laboratory of Host Immunity and Microbiome, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA; .,Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, United Kingdom
| | - Yasmine Belkaid
- Metaorganism Immunity Section, Laboratory of Host Immunity and Microbiome, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA; .,Microbiome Program, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cogswell DT, Gapin L, Tobin HM, McCarter MD, Tobin RP. MAIT Cells: Partners or Enemies in Cancer Immunotherapy? Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:1502. [PMID: 33805904 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13071502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Unconventional T cells have recently come under intense scrutiny because of their innate-like effector functions and unique antigen specificity, suggesting their potential importance in antitumor immunity. MAIT cells, one such population of unconventional T cell, have been shown to significantly influence bacterial infections, parasitic and fungal infections, viral infections, autoimmune and other inflammatory diseases, and, as discussed thoroughly in this review, various cancers. This review aims to merge accumulating evidence, tease apart the complexities of MAIT cell biology in different malignancies, and discuss how these may impact clinical outcomes. While it is clear that MAIT cells can impact the tumor microenvironment, the nature of these interactions varies depending on the type of cancer, subset of MAIT cell, patient demographic, microbiome composition, and the type of therapy administered. This review examines the impact of these variables on MAIT cells and discusses outstanding questions within the field. Abstract A recent boom in mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cell research has identified relationships between MAIT cell abundance, function, and clinical outcomes in various malignancies. As they express a variety of immune checkpoint receptors and ligands, and possess strong cytotoxic functions, MAIT cells are an attractive new subject in the field of tumor immunology. MAIT cells are a class of innate-like T cells that express a semi-invariant T cell antigen receptor (TCR) that recognizes microbially derived non-peptide antigens presented by the non-polymorphic MHC class-1 like molecule, MR1. In this review, we outline the current (and often contradictory) evidence exploring MAIT cell biology and how MAIT cells impact clinical outcomes in different human cancers, as well as what role they may have in cancer immunotherapy.
Collapse
|
5
|
Edmans MD, Connelley TK, Jayaraman S, Vrettou C, Vordermeier M, Mak JYW, Liu L, Fairlie DP, Maze EA, Chrun T, Klenerman P, Eckle SBG, Tchilian E, Benedictus L. Identification and Phenotype of MAIT Cells in Cattle and Their Response to Bacterial Infections. Front Immunol 2021; 12:627173. [PMID: 33777010 PMCID: PMC7991102 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.627173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are a population of innate-like T cells that utilize a semi-invariant T cell receptor (TCR) α chain and are restricted by the highly conserved antigen presenting molecule MR1. MR1 presents microbial riboflavin biosynthesis derived metabolites produced by bacteria and fungi. Consistent with their ability to sense ligands derived from bacterial sources, MAIT cells have been associated with the immune response to a variety of bacterial infections, such as Mycobacterium spp., Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli. To date, MAIT cells have been studied in humans, non-human primates and mice. However, they have only been putatively identified in cattle by PCR based methods; no phenotypic or functional analyses have been performed. Here, we identified a MAIT cell population in cattle utilizing MR1 tetramers and high-throughput TCR sequencing. Phenotypic analysis of cattle MAIT cells revealed features highly analogous to those of MAIT cells in humans and mice, including expression of an orthologous TRAV1-TRAJ33 TCR α chain, an effector memory phenotype irrespective of tissue localization, and expression of the transcription factors PLZF and EOMES. We determined the frequency of MAIT cells in peripheral blood and multiple tissues, finding that cattle MAIT cells are enriched in mucosal tissues as well as in the mesenteric lymph node. Cattle MAIT cells were responsive to stimulation by 5-OP-RU and riboflavin biosynthesis competent bacteria in vitro. Furthermore, MAIT cells in milk increased in frequency in cows with mastitis. Following challenge with virulent Mycobacterium bovis, a causative agent of bovine tuberculosis and a zoonosis, peripheral blood MAIT cells expressed higher levels of perforin. Thus, MAIT cells are implicated in the immune response to two major bacterial infections in cattle. These data suggest that MAIT cells are functionally highly conserved and that cattle are an excellent large animal model to study the role of MAIT cells in important zoonotic infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Edmans
- Department of Enhanced Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy K. Connelley
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Siddharth Jayaraman
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Christina Vrettou
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Vordermeier
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, United Kingdom
- Centre for Bovine Tuberculosis, Institute for Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, University of Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey Y. W. Mak
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Ligong Liu
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Centre of Inflammation and Disease Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - David P. Fairlie
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Centre of Inflammation and Disease Research, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Emmanuel Atangana Maze
- Department of Enhanced Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Tiphany Chrun
- Department of Enhanced Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Klenerman
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Sidonia B. G. Eckle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Elma Tchilian
- Department of Enhanced Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Lindert Benedictus
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, United Kingdom
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Grewers Z, Krueger A. MicroRNA miR-181-A Rheostat for TCR Signaling in Thymic Selection and Peripheral T-Cell Function. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6200. [PMID: 32867301 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The selection of T cells during intra-thymic d evelopment is crucial to obtain a functional and simultaneously not self-reactive peripheral T cell repertoire. However, selection is a complex process dependent on T cell receptor (TCR) thresholds that remain incompletely understood. In peripheral T cells, activation, clonal expansion, and contraction of the active T cell pool, as well as other processes depend on TCR signal strength. Members of the microRNA (miRNA) miR-181 family have been shown to be dynamically regulated during T cell development as well as dependent on the activation stage of T cells. Indeed, it has been shown that expression of miR-181a leads to the downregulation of multiple phosphatases, implicating miR-181a as ‘‘rheostat’’ of TCR signaling. Consistently, genetic models have revealed an essential role of miR-181a/b-1 for the generation of unconventional T cells as well as a function in tuning TCR sensitivity in peripheral T cells during aging. Here, we review these broad roles of miR-181 family members in T cell function via modulating TCR signal strength.
Collapse
|
7
|
Hildreth AD, O'Sullivan TE. Tissue-Resident Innate and Innate-Like Lymphocyte Responses to Viral Infection. Viruses 2019; 11:v11030272. [PMID: 30893756 PMCID: PMC6466361 DOI: 10.3390/v11030272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection is restrained by the concerted activation of tissue-resident and circulating immune cells. Recent discoveries have demonstrated that tissue-resident lymphocyte subsets, comprised of innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) and unconventional T cells, have vital roles in the initiation of primary antiviral responses. Via direct and indirect mechanisms, ILCs and unconventional T cell subsets play a critical role in the ability of the immune system to mount an effective antiviral response through potent early cytokine production. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge of tissue-resident lymphocytes during initial viral infection and evaluate their redundant or nonredundant contributions to host protection or virus-induced pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Hildreth
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 900953, USA.
| | - Timothy E O'Sullivan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 900953, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gherardin NA, Souter MN, Koay HF, Mangas KM, Seemann T, Stinear TP, Eckle SB, Berzins SP, d'Udekem Y, Konstantinov IE, Fairlie DP, Ritchie DS, Neeson PJ, Pellicci DG, Uldrich AP, McCluskey J, Godfrey DI. Human blood MAIT cell subsets defined using MR1 tetramers. Immunol Cell Biol 2018; 96:507-525. [PMID: 29437263 PMCID: PMC6446826 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Revised: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mucosal‐associated invariant T (MAIT) cells represent up to 10% of circulating human T cells. They are usually defined using combinations of non‐lineage‐specific (surrogate) markers such as anti‐TRAV1‐2, CD161, IL‐18Rα and CD26. The development of MR1‐Ag tetramers now permits the specific identification of MAIT cells based on T‐cell receptor specificity. Here, we compare these approaches for identifying MAIT cells and show that surrogate markers are not always accurate in identifying these cells, particularly the CD4+ fraction. Moreover, while all MAIT cell subsets produced comparable levels of IFNγ, TNF and IL‐17A, the CD4+ population produced more IL‐2 than the other subsets. In a human ontogeny study, we show that the frequencies of most MR1 tetramer+ MAIT cells, with the exception of CD4+ MAIT cells, increased from birth to about 25 years of age and declined thereafter. We also demonstrate a positive association between the frequency of MAIT cells and other unconventional T cells including Natural Killer T (NKT) cells and Vδ2+ γδ T cells. Accordingly, this study demonstrates that MAIT cells are phenotypically and functionally diverse, that surrogate markers may not reliably identify all of these cells, and that their numbers are regulated in an age‐dependent manner and correlate with NKT and Vδ2+ γδ T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Gherardin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Michael Nt Souter
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Hui-Fern Koay
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Kirstie M Mangas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Torsten Seemann
- Life Sciences Computation Centre, Victorian Life Sciences Computation Initiative, Carlton, VIC, 3053, Australia
| | - Timothy P Stinear
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Sidonia Bg Eckle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Stuart P Berzins
- Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC, 3350, Australia.,Fiona Elsey Cancer Research Institute, Ballarat, VIC, 3350, Australia
| | - Yves d'Udekem
- Royal Children's Hospital, Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | | | - David P Fairlie
- Division of Chemistry & Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - David S Ritchie
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, VIC, 3002, Australia.,Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Paul J Neeson
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, VIC, 3002, Australia
| | - Daniel G Pellicci
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Adam P Uldrich
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - James McCluskey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Dale I Godfrey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|