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Hernández Hernández O, Gutiérrez-Escolano AL, Cancio-Lonches C, Iturriaga MH, Pacheco-Aguilar JR, Morales-Rayas R, Arvizu-Medrano SM. Multiplex PCR method for the detection of human norovirus, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli in blackberry, coriander, lettuce and strawberry. Food Microbiol 2022; 102:103926. [PMID: 34809952 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2021.103926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A multiplex PCR method was developed for the simultaneous detection of murine norovirus (MNV-1) as a surrogate for human norovirus (HuNoV) GI and GII, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and Shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in fresh produce. The toxicity of the glycine buffer on bacterial pathogens viability was evaluated. The growth of each of the three pathogens (previously stressed) was evaluated at 35 and 41.5 °C in modified buffered peptone water (mBPW) and trypticase soy broth (TSB), supplemented with vancomycin, novobiocin and brilliant green at two concentration levels. The selected conditions for simultaneous enrichment were: 41.5 °C/mBPW/supplemented with 8 ppm vancomycin, 0.6 ppm novobiocin and 0.2 ppm brilliant green. The pathogens and aerobic plate count (APC) growth was evaluated in the enrichment of lettuce, coriander, strawberry and blackberry under the best enrichment conditions. Starting from 1 to 10 CFU/mL, Salmonella reached from 7.63 to 8.91, Shigella 6.81 to 7.76 and STEC 7.43 to 9.27 log CFU/mL. The population reached for the APC was 5.11-6.56 log CFU/mL. Simultaneous detection by PCR was done using designed primers targeting invA, ipaH, stx1 and stx2 genes, and MNV-1. The detection sensitivity was 10-100 PFU for the MNV-1 and 1-10 CFU for each pathogenic bacteria. This protocol takes 6 h for MNV-1 and 24 h for Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and STEC detection from the same food portion. In total, 200 samples were analyzed from retail markets from Queretaro, Mexico. Two strawberry samples were positive for HuNoV GI and one lettuce sample was positive for STEC. In conclusion, the method developed in this study is capable of detecting HuNoV GI and GII, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp and STEC from the same fresh produce sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Hernández Hernández
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Colonia Las Campanas, 76010, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Ana L Gutiérrez-Escolano
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, CINVESTAV-IPN, Av Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, San Pedro Zacatenco, Gustavo A. Madero, 07360, Ciudad de México, CDMX, Mexico
| | - Cleo Cancio-Lonches
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, CINVESTAV-IPN, Av Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, San Pedro Zacatenco, Gustavo A. Madero, 07360, Ciudad de México, CDMX, Mexico
| | - Montserrat H Iturriaga
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Colonia Las Campanas, 76010, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Juan Ramiro Pacheco-Aguilar
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Colonia Las Campanas, 76010, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Rocío Morales-Rayas
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Colonia Las Campanas, 76010, Querétaro, Mexico.
| | - Sofía M Arvizu-Medrano
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, Colonia Las Campanas, 76010, Querétaro, Mexico.
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2
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Raymond P, Paul S, Perron A, Deschênes L. Norovirus Extraction from Frozen Raspberries Using Magnetic Silica Beads. Food Environ Virol 2021; 13:248-258. [PMID: 33651330 PMCID: PMC8116234 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-021-09466-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are among the main causes of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Frozen raspberries have been linked to several HuNoV food-related outbreaks. However, the extraction of HuNoV RNA from frozen raspberries remains challenging. Recovery yields are low, and real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-qPCR) inhibitors limit the sensitivity of the detection methodologies. A new approach using fine magnetic silica beads was developed for the extraction of HuNoV spiked on frozen raspberries. Relatively low recovery yields were observed with both the magnetic silica bead and the reference ISO 15216-1:2017 methods. High RT-qPCR inhibition was observed with the ISO 15216-1:2017 recommended amplification kit but could be reduced by using an alternative kit. Reducing RT-qPCR inhibition is important to limit the number of inconclusive HuNoV assays thus increasing the capacity to assess the HuNoV prevalence in frozen raspberries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Raymond
- Canadian Food Inspection Laboratory (CFIA), St. Hyacinthe Laboratory, Food Virology, Saint Hyacinthe, QC, Canada.
| | - Sylvianne Paul
- Canadian Food Inspection Laboratory (CFIA), St. Hyacinthe Laboratory, Food Virology, Saint Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - André Perron
- Canadian Food Inspection Laboratory (CFIA), St. Hyacinthe Laboratory, Food Virology, Saint Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Louise Deschênes
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), St. Hyacinthe Research and Development Centre, Saint Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
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3
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Annous BA, Buckley DA, Kingsley DH. Efficacy of Chlorine Dioxide Gas Against Hepatitis A Virus on Blueberries, Blackberries, Raspberries, and Strawberries. Food Environ Virol 2021; 13:241-247. [PMID: 33689143 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-021-09465-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Seeking a means of sanitizing berries, the effectiveness of steady state levels of gaseous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) against hepatitis A virus (HAV) on laboratory-contaminated berries was determined. The generated ClO2 was maintained with 1 or 2 mg/l air inside a 269-l glove box to treat 50 g batches of blueberries, raspberries, and blackberries, and 100 g batches of strawberries that were immersion coated with HAV. Normalized data for ClO2 (ppm-h/g product) is reported as a function of ClO2 concentration, treatment time, and weight of treated product. Treatments of ClO2 ranging from 1.00 to 6.27 ppm-h/g berry were evaluated. When compared to untreated HAV-contaminated berries, log reductions of HAV were > 2.1 for all berry types and conditions tested indicating the gaseous ClO2 was effective. The average log reduction with strawberries, raspberries, blueberries and blackberries treated with 1.00 ppm-h/g, the lowest ClO2 treatment tested, were 2.44, 2.49, 3.23, and 3.45, respectively. The highest treatment of 6.27 ppm-h/g was applied at two different gas concentrations of 1 mg/l and 2 mg/l. Average log reductions for blueberries and strawberries treated with 6.27 ppm-h/g were 4.34 and 4.42, and 4.03 and 3.51, applied at 1 mg/l and 2 mg/l, respectively. For blackberries and raspberries 3.20 and 3.24, and 3.23 and 3.97 log reductions were observed for 6.27 ppm-h/g treatments applied at 1 mg/l and 2 mg/l, respectively. Results indicate that HAV contamination of berries can be substantially reduced by gaseous ClO2 and offer industry a waterless means of sanitizing berries against HAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassam A Annous
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, PA, 19038, USA
| | - David A Buckley
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, PA, 19038, USA
- Diversey, Inc, 1300 Altura Road, Fort Mill, SC, 29708, USA
| | - David H Kingsley
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, Delaware State University, 1200 North DuPont Hwy, Dover, DE, 19901, USA.
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4
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Rajiuddin SM, Vigre H, Musavian HS, Kohle S, Krebs N, Hansen TB, Gantzer C, Schultz AC. Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and murine norovirus on surfaces of plastic, steel and raspberries using steam-ultrasound treatment. Food Environ Virol 2020; 12:295-309. [PMID: 32885354 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-020-09441-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The leading causes of foodborne viral disease outbreaks are human norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Their environmental persistence enables contamination of kitchen surfaces and crops often consumed raw, such as berries. Many decontamination procedures are inefficient and unsuitable for surfaces of industrial kitchen environments and soft fruits. In this study, we investigated the efficiency of a novel surface decontamination technology, combining steam and ultrasound (steam-ultrasound). Plastic, steel or raspberry surfaces were spiked with the norovirus surrogate, murine norovirus (MNV), and HAV, and steam-ultrasound treated at 85, 90 and 95 °C for 0-5 s. Post treatment viruses were titrated for survival by plaque assay and for genome stability by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) of nucleic acid extracts. Survival of viruses were estimated in a log-linear model and the treatment time requirements for each decimal reduction (D value) in viral survival were calculated. The estimated D values of MNV or HAV were 0.4-0.2 or 1.1-0.8 s on plastic, 0.9-0.7 or 1.4-0.8 s on steel and 1.6-1.7 or 3.2-4.7 s on raspberries. No clear trend of genome reduction was observed with tested treatment parameters. Raspberries treated up to 4 s retained its natural texture and visual appeal similar to untreated controls whilst monitored for 7 days. In conclusion, steam-ultrasound treatment can within seconds reduce the titre of foodborne viruses on surfaces of plastic, steel and raspberries. This may particularly benefit industrial scale production of soft fruits for raw consumption and for swift non-hazardous decontamination of industrial kitchen surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheikh Md Rajiuddin
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Håkan Vigre
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Simon Kohle
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Niels Krebs
- Force Technology, SonoSteam, Park allé 345, 2605, Brøndby, Denmark
| | - Tina Beck Hansen
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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Diaz-Lara A, Mosier NJ, Stevens K, Keller KE, Martin RR. Evidence of Rubus Yellow Net Virus Integration into the Red Raspberry Genome. Cytogenet Genome Res 2020; 160:329-334. [PMID: 32683370 DOI: 10.1159/000509845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubus yellow net virus (RYNV) infects Rubus spp., causing a severe decline when present in mixed infections with other viruses. RYNV belongs to the family Caulimoviridae, also known as plant pararetroviruses, which can exist as episomal or integrated elements (endogenous). Most of integrated pararetroviruses are noninfectious; however, a few cases have been reported where they excised from the plant genome and formed infectious particles. Graft transmission onto indicator plants R. occidentalis "Munger" has been the standard test method for RYNV detection in certification programs. Previously, it was noticed that some RYNV PCR-positive plants did not induce symptoms on "Munger", suggesting an integration event. In this study, bio-indexing and different molecular techniques were employed to differentiate between integrated and episomal RYNV sequences. Reverse transcription-PCR using RYNV-specific oligonucleotides after DNase treatment generated positive results for the virus in graft transmissible isolates (episomal) only. To confirm these results, rolling circle amplification on DNA preparations from the same samples resulted in amplicons identified as RYNV only from plants with graft transmissible RYNV. High-throughput sequencing was used to identify the RYNV-like sequences present in the host DNA. These results indicate the integration of RYNV into the red raspberry genome and highlight the necessity to recognize this phenomenon (integration) in future Rubus quarantine and certification programs.
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Isogai M, Matsudaira T, Miyoshi K, Shimura T, Torii S, Yoshikawa N. The raspberry bushy dwarf virus 1b gene enables pollen grains to function efficiently in horizontal pollen transmission. Virology 2020; 542:28-33. [PMID: 31957663 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Horizontal pollen transmission by the raspberry bushy dwarf virus 1b deletion mutant (RBΔ1bstop), which is defective in virus virulence, was significantly decreased compared to wild-type raspberry bushy dwarf virus (wtRBDV). We assessed accumulation of viral genomic (g) RNAs in pollen grains from RBΔ1bstop-infected plants and found that the pollen grains had less viral gRNA than those from wtRBDV-infected plants. In addition, pollen grains from 1b-expressing transgenic plants (1b-plants) infected with RBΔ1bstop were more efficient in horizontal virus transmission to healthy plants after pollination than pollen from RBΔ1bstop-infected wild type plants. Moreover, viral gRNA accumulation in pollen grains from RBΔ1bstop-infected 1b-plants was higher than in pollen from RBΔ1bstop-infected wild type plants. We suggest that 1b increases the amount of viral gRNAs released from elongating pollen grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masamichi Isogai
- Plant Pathology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Ueda 3-chome 18-8, Morioka, 020-8550, Iwate, Japan.
| | - Takanori Matsudaira
- Plant Pathology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Ueda 3-chome 18-8, Morioka, 020-8550, Iwate, Japan
| | - Kotaro Miyoshi
- Plant Pathology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Ueda 3-chome 18-8, Morioka, 020-8550, Iwate, Japan
| | - Takuya Shimura
- Plant Pathology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Ueda 3-chome 18-8, Morioka, 020-8550, Iwate, Japan
| | - Sayaka Torii
- Plant Pathology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Ueda 3-chome 18-8, Morioka, 020-8550, Iwate, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Yoshikawa
- Plant Pathology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Ueda 3-chome 18-8, Morioka, 020-8550, Iwate, Japan
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7
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Kingsley DH, Annous BA. Evaluation of Steady-State Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide Treatment for the Inactivation of Tulane virus on Berry Fruits. Food Environ Virol 2019; 11:214-219. [PMID: 30949936 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-019-09382-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The effectiveness of steady-state levels of gaseous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) against Tulane virus (TV), a human norovirus surrogate, on berries was determined. The generated ClO2 was maintained at 1 mg/L inside a 269 L glove box to treat two 50 g batches of blueberries, raspberries, and blackberries, and two 100 g batches of strawberries that were immersion coated with TV. The standardized/normalized treatment concentrations of ClO2 ranging from 0.63 to 4.40 ppm-h/g berry were evaluated. When compared to untreated TV contaminated berries, log reductions of TV were in excess of 2.9 log PFU/g for all berry types and conditions tested, indicating that ClO2 was highly effective. In general, the efficacy of all ClO2 treatments on log reductions of TV on all berries was not significantly different (p < 0.05). The average log reduction with strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and blackberries, treated with the lowest ClO2 concentration, 0.63 ppm-h/g, were 2.98, 3.40, 3.82, and 4.17 log PFU/g, respectively. Overall results suggest that constant levels of ClO2 could be quite effective against foodborne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Kingsley
- Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Delaware State University, 1200 DuPont Hwy, Dover, DE, 19901, USA
| | - Bassam A Annous
- Food Safety and Intervention Technologies Research Unit, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, PA, 19038, USA.
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Cook N, Williams L, D'Agostino M. Prevalence of Norovirus in produce sold at retail in the United Kingdom. Food Microbiol 2019; 79:85-89. [PMID: 30621879 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To acquire data on contamination with Norovirus in berry fruit and salad vegetables in the United Kingdom, one thousand one hundred and fifty two samples of fresh produce sold at retail in the UK were analysed for Norovirus. Of 568 samples of lettuce, 30 (5.3%) were Norovirus-positive. Most (24/30) lettuce samples which tested positive for Norovirus were grown in the UK and 19 of those 24 samples contained NoV GI. Seven/310 (2.3%) samples of fresh raspberries were Norovirus-positive. Most (6/7) of the positively-testing fresh raspberry samples were imported, but no predominance of a genogroup, or any seasonality, was observed. Ten/274 (3.6%) samples of frozen raspberries were Norovirus-positive. The country of origin of the positively-testing frozen raspberry samples was not identified in most (7/10) instances. The collected data add to the currently limited body of prevalence information on Norovirus in fresh produce, and indicate the need for implementation of effective food safety management of foodborne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel Cook
- Jorvik Food and Environmental Virology Ltd, York, UK; Fera Science Ltd, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK.
| | | | - Martin D'Agostino
- Fera Science Ltd, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK; Campden BRI, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK
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Abstract
Raspberries have lately caused several human norovirus (HuNoV) outbreaks in Europe. In this study, we developed and evaluated for HuNoV reverse transcription (RT)-PCR detection in frozen raspberries extraction methods that have equal sensitivity but are less time-consuming than widely used methods based on polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation and chloroform-butanol purification. One method was applied to stored frozen raspberries linked to previous HuNoV outbreaks and berries on sale. In the virus elution-based Method 1, sparkling water eluted viruses most efficiently from the berries. Method 2, based on direct nucleic acid extraction with minor PEG supplement, yielded the highest number of positive findings (4 out of 9) at low virus concentration level of 100 genome copies HuNoV genogroup II per 25 g raspberries. Both methods showed approximately equal sensitivity to a method including PEG precipitation and chloroform-butanol purification. Two naturally contaminated berry samples linked to HuNoV outbreaks in 2006 and 2009 were still positive for HuNoV genogroup I, but all berry products purchased from a local store remained negative for HuNoV. In conclusion, this study presents two efficient and rapid methods which can be used in urgent HuNoV outbreak investigations, since the results of the virus analysis are available in a few hours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maija Summa
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Leena Maunula
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
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EINÖDER-MORENO M, LANGE H, GREPP M, OSBORG E, VAINIO K, VOLD L. Non-heat-treated frozen raspberries the most likely vehicle of a norovirus outbreak in Oslo, Norway, November 2013. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 144:2765-72. [PMID: 26878755 PMCID: PMC9150410 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268816000194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
In November 2013, the Norwegian Institute of Public Health was notified of a gastroenteritis outbreak following two meetings held at a conference centre. Identical food and beverages were served during the meetings. We investigated in order to identify the vehicle of infection and implement control measures. Meeting participants completed an online questionnaire on consumption of foods and beverages. We asked symptomatic participants to provide a stool sample. We defined a case as diarrhoea and/or vomiting in a participant who became ill within 3 days after the meeting. We calculated attack rates (AR) and adjusted risk ratios (aRR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) using binomial regression. We conducted environmental investigations. Overall, 147/168 (88%) participants responded, of which 74 (50%) met the case definition. All five stool samples provided were norovirus positive. No kitchen staff reported being sick. Risk of illness was higher in those who consumed raspberry mousse (aRR 3·4, 95% CI 1·4-8·2) and sliced fresh fruit (aRR 1·9, 95% CI 1·3-2·8). Seventy cases (95%) ate raspberry mousse. Frozen raspberries used for the mousse were imported and not heat-treated before consumption. Non-heat-treated frozen raspberries were the most likely outbreak vehicle. Contamination by a food handler could not be excluded. We recommend heat-treatment of imported frozen berries before consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. EINÖDER-MORENO
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - H. LANGE
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - M. GREPP
- Department of Public Health, Health Agency, Municipality of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - E. OSBORG
- Norwegian Food Safety Authority, Oslo, Norway
| | - K. VAINIO
- Department of Virology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - L. VOLD
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Ruhanya V, Diez-Valcarce M, D'Agostino M, Cook N, Hernández M, Rodríguez-Lázaro D. Monitoring of Extraction Efficiency by a Sample Process Control Virus Added Immediately Upon Sample Receipt. Food Environ Virol 2015; 7:413-416. [PMID: 26297430 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-015-9214-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
When analysing food samples for enteric viruses, a sample process control virus (SPCV) must be added at the commencement of the analytical procedure, to verify that the analysis has been performed correctly. Samples can on occasion arrive at the laboratory late in the working day or week. The analyst may consequently have insufficient time to commence and complete the complex procedure, and the samples must consequently be stored. To maintain the validity of the analytical result, it will be necessary to consider storage as part of the process, and the analytical procedure as commencing on sample receipt. The aim of this study was to verify that an SPCV can be recovered after sample storage, and thus indicate the effective recovery of enteric viruses. Two types of samples (fresh and frozen raspberries) and two types of storage (refrigerated and frozen) were studied using Mengovirus vMC0 as SPCV. SPCV recovery was not significantly different (P > 0.5) regardless of sample type or duration of storage (up to 14 days at -20 °C). Accordingly, samples can be stored without a significant effect on the performance of the analysis. The results of this study should assist the analyst by demonstrating that they can verify that viruses can be extracted from food samples even if samples have been stored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vurayai Ruhanya
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Marta Diez-Valcarce
- Food Technology Section, Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain
| | | | - Nigel Cook
- Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA), Sand Hutton, York, UK
| | - Marta Hernández
- Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León, Valladolid, Spain
| | - David Rodríguez-Lázaro
- Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León, Valladolid, Spain.
- Microbiology Section, Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Plaza Misael Bauñuelos s/n, 9001, Burgos, Spain.
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Walker M, Chisholm J, Wei T, Ghoshal B, Saeed H, Rott M, Sanfaçon H. Complete genome sequence of three tomato ringspot virus isolates: evidence for reassortment and recombination. Arch Virol 2014; 160:543-7. [PMID: 25267178 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-014-2240-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The genome sequence of tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV, a subgroup C nepovirus) is currently available for one raspberry isolate. In this study, we describe the complete genome sequence of three additional isolates from raspberry (Rasp1-2014), grapevine (GYV-2014) and prunus (13C280). The degree of nucleotide sequence identity shared between RNA1 and RNA2 in the 5'-terminal 900 nucleotides and 3' untranslated region varied from 98-99 % (13C280, GYV-2014) to 80 % (Rasp1-2014). Phylogenetic studies revealed distinct origins for Rasp1-2014 RNA1 and RNA2, suggesting reassortment. Two recombination events were also identified in the 3' UTR and 5'-terminal region of RNA1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Walker
- Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 4200 Highway 97, PO Box 5000, Summerland, BC, V0H 1Z0, Canada
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Li D, De Keuckelaere A, Uyttendaele M. Application of long-range and binding reverse transcription-quantitative PCR to indicate the viral integrities of noroviruses. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 80:6473-9. [PMID: 25107982 PMCID: PMC4178651 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02092-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study intends to establish and apply methods evaluating both viral capsid and genome integrities of human noroviruses (NoVs), which thus far remain nonculturable. Murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) and human NoV GII.4 in phosphate-buffered saline suspensions were treated with heat, UV light, or ethanol and detected by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), long-range RT-qPCR, binding RT-qPCR, and binding long-range RT-qPCR. For MNV-1 heated at 60°C for 2 and 30 min, limited reductions of genomic copies (<0.3-log) were obtained by RT-qPCR and long-range RT-qPCR, while the cell-binding pretreatments obtained higher reductions (>1.89-log reduction after 60°C for 30 min by binding long-range RT-qPCR). The human NoV GII.4 was found to be more heat resistant than MNV-1. For both MNV-1 and human NoV GII.4 after UV treatments of 20 and 200 mJ/cm(2), no significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed between the dose-dependent reductions obtained by the four detection methodologies. Treatment of 70% ethanol for 1 min was shown to be more effective for inactivation of both MNV-1 and human NoV GII.4 than the heat and UV treatments used in this study. Subsequently, eight raspberry and four shellfish samples previously shown to be naturally contaminated with human NoVs by RT-qPCR (GI and GII; thus, 24 RT-qPCR signals) were subjected to comparison by this method. RT-qPCR, long-range RT-qPCR, binding RT-qPCR, and binding long-range RT-qPCR detected 20/24, 14/24, 24/24, and 23/24 positive signals, respectively, indicating the abundant presence of intact NoV particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ann De Keuckelaere
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mieke Uyttendaele
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Loutreul J, Cazeaux C, Levert D, Nicolas A, Vautier S, Le Sauvage AL, Perelle S, Morin T. Prevalence of human noroviruses in frozen marketed shellfish, red fruits and fresh vegetables. Food Environ Virol 2014; 6:157-68. [PMID: 24923255 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9150-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs), currently recognised as the most common human food-borne pathogens, are ubiquitous in the environment and can be transmitted to humans through multiple foodstuffs. In this study, we evaluated the prevalence of human NoV genogroups I (GI) and II (GII) in 493 food samples including soft red fruits (n = 200), salad vegetables (n = 210) and bivalve mollusc shellfish (n = 83), using the Bovine Enterovirus type 1 as process extraction control for the first time. Viral extractions were performed by elution concentration and genome detection by TaqMan Real-Time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR). Experimental contamination using hepatitis A virus (HAV) was used to determine the limit of detection (LOD) of the extraction methods. Positive detections were obtained from 2 g of digestive tissues of oysters or mussels kept for 16 h in seawater containing 2.0-2.7 log10 plaque-forming units (PFU)/L of HAV. For lettuces and raspberries, the LOD was, respectively, estimated at 2.2 and 2.9 log10 PFU per 25 g. Of the molluscs tested, 8.4 and 14.4% were, respectively, positive for the presence of GI NoV and GII NoV RNA. Prevalence in GI NoVs varied from 11.9% for the salad vegetables samples to 15.5% for the red soft fruits. Only 0.5% of the salad and red soft fruits samples were positive for GII NoVs. These results highlight the high occurrence of human NoVs in foodstuffs that can be eaten raw or after a moderate technological processing or treatment. The determination of the risk of infection associated with an RT-qPCR positive sample remains an important challenge for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Loutreul
- ACTALIA, Groupe Sécurité des Aliments et Innovation Procédés, 23 Boulevard du 13 Juin 1944 BP2, 14310, Villers-Bocage, France
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15
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Lightle DM, Quito-Avila D, Martin RR, Lee JC. Seasonal phenology of Amphorophora agathonica (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and spread of viruses in red raspberry in Washington. Environ Entomol 2014; 43:467-473. [PMID: 24763099 DOI: 10.1603/en13213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Amphorophora agathonica (Hottes) is the primary vector of aphid-transmitted viruses in red raspberry in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. To better understand the biology of the aphid, we estimated the lower developmental threshold and studied the seasonal activity of A. agathonica in commercial fields in northern Washington state. In addition, we monitored the spread of raspberry viruses (raspberry latent virus and raspberry leaf mottle virus, RLMV) to determine how rapidly fields became infected and whether there was a relationship between aphid presence and infection. The lower developmental threshold of A. agathonica was estimated to be 2.7°C. In the field, apterous and alate aphid populations began rapidly increasing at ≍800 growing degree-days and peaked at 1,050 growing degree-days. RLMV spread rapidly, with 30-60% of plants in four different commercial fields testing positive after three growing seasons. There was no discernible relationship between the presence or abundance of aphids based on 10 leaves sampled per plant location, and the odds of that plant becoming infected with RLMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Lightle
- Entomology Program, Oregon State University, 4017 Ag and Life Sciences Bldg., Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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