Nature of Charge Carrier Recombination in CuWO4 Photoanodes for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting

CuWO4 is a ternary semiconductor oxide with excellent visible light harvesting properties up to 550 nm and stability at high pH values, which make it a suitable material to build photoanodes for solar light conversion to hydrogen via water splitting. In this work, we studied the photoelectrochemical (PEC) performance of transparent CuWO4 electrodes with tunable light absorption and thickness, aiming at identifying the intrinsic bottlenecks of photogenerated charge carriers in this semiconductor. We found that electrodes with optimal CuWO4 thickness exhibit visible light activity due to the absorption of long-wavelength photons and a balanced electron and hole extraction from the oxide. The PEC performance of CuWO4 is light-intensity-dependent, with charge recombination increasing with light intensity and most photogenerated charge carriers recombining in bulk sites, as demonstrated by PEC tests performed in the presence of sacrificial agents or cocatalysts. The best-performing 580 nm thick CuWO4 electrode delivers a photocurrent of 0.37 mA cm-2 at 1.23 VSHE, with a 7% absorbed photon to current efficiency over the CuWO4 absorption spectrum.

Biodegradable and Sustainable Synthetic Antibodies-A Perspective

Molecular imprinting technology has been around for almost a century, and we have witnessed dramatic advancements in the overall design and production of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), particularly in terms of possible formats of the final products when it comes to truly resembling antibody substitutes, i.e., MIP nanoparticles (MIP NPs). Nonetheless, the overall technology appears to struggle to keep up with the current global sustainability efforts, as recently elucidated in the latest comprehensive reviews, which introduced the "GREENIFICATION" concept. In this review, we will try to elucidate if these advancements in MIP nanotechnology have indeed resulted in a sustainability amelioration. We will do so by discussing the general production and purification strategies for MIP NPs, specifically from a sustainability and biodegradation perspective, also considering the final intended application and ultimate waste management.

Molecular Targets for Antibody-Based Anti-Biofilm Therapy in Infective Endocarditis

Infective endocarditis (IE) is a heart disease caused by the infection of heart valves, majorly caused by Staphilococcus aureus. IE is initiated by bacteria entering the blood circulation in favouring conditions (e.g., during invasive procedures). So far, the conventional antimicrobial strategies based on the usage of antibiotics remain the major intervention for treating IE. Nevertheless, the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics in IE is limited not only by the bacterial drug resistance, but also by the formation of biofilms, which resist the penetration of antibiotics into bacterial cells. To overcome these drawbacks, the development of anti-biofilm treatments that can expose bacteria and make them more susceptible to the action of antibiotics, therefore resulting in reduced antimicrobial resistance, is urgently required. A series of anti-biofilm strategies have been developed, and this review will focus in particular on the development of anti-biofilm antibodies. Based on the results previously reported in the literature, several potential anti-biofilm targets are discussed, such as bacterial adhesins, biofilm matrix and bacterial toxins, covering their antigenic properties (with the identification of potential promising epitopes), functional mechanisms, as well as the antibodies already developed against these targets and, where feasible, their clinical translation.

Advances in Molecularly Imprinted Polymers as Drug Delivery Systems

Despite the tremendous efforts made in the past decades, severe side/toxic effects and poor bioavailability still represent the main challenges that hinder the clinical translation of drug molecules. This has turned the attention of investigators towards drug delivery vehicles that provide a localized and controlled drug delivery. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as novel and versatile drug delivery vehicles have been widely studied in recent years due to the advantages of selective recognition, enhanced drug loading, sustained release, and robustness in harsh conditions. This review highlights the design and development of strategies undertaken for MIPs used as drug delivery vehicles involving different drug delivery mechanisms, such as rate-programmed, stimuli-responsive and active targeting, published during the course of the past five years.

Engineering Polymeric Nanosystems against Oral Diseases

Nanotechnology and nanoparticles (NPs) are at the forefront of modern research, particularly in the case of healthcare therapeutic applications. Polymeric NPs, specifically, hold high promise for these purposes, including towards oral diseases. Careful optimisation of the production of polymeric NPs, however, is required to generate a product which can be easily translated from a laboratory environment to the actual clinical usage. Indeed, considerations such as biocompatibility, biodistribution, and biodegradability are paramount. Moreover, a pre-clinical assessment in adequate in vitro, ex vivo or in vivo model is also required. Last but not least, considerations for the scale-up are also important, together with an appropriate clinical testing pathway. This review aims to eviscerate the above topics, sourcing at examples from the recent literature to put in context the current most burdening oral diseases and the most promising polymeric NPs which would be suitable against them.

On the shuttling across the blood-brain barrier via tubule formation: Mechanism and cargo avidity bias

The blood-brain barrier is made of polarized brain endothelial cells (BECs) phenotypically conditioned by the central nervous system (CNS). Although transport across BECs is of paramount importance for nutrient uptake as well as ridding the brain of waste products, the intracellular sorting mechanisms that regulate successful receptor-mediated transcytosis in BECs remain to be elucidated. Here, we used a synthetic multivalent system with tunable avidity to the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) to investigate the mechanisms of transport across BECs. We used a combination of conventional and super-resolution microscopy, both in vivo and in vitro, accompanied with biophysical modeling of transport kinetics and membrane-bound interactions to elucidate the role of membrane-sculpting protein syndapin-2 on fast transport via tubule formation. We show that high-avidity cargo biases the LRP1 toward internalization associated with fast degradation, while mid-avidity augments the formation of syndapin-2 tubular carriers promoting a fast shuttling across.

l-Asparaginase Encapsulation into Asymmetric Permeable Polymersomes

This work reports, for the encapsulation of l-asparaginase, an anticancer enzyme into hybrid PMPC₂₅-PDPA₇₀/PEO₁₆-PBO₂₂ asymmetric polymersomes previously developed by our group, with loading capacities with over 800 molecules per vesicle. Enzyme-loaded polymersomes show permeability and capacity to hydrolyze l-asparagine, which is essential to cancer cells. The nanoreactors proposed in this work can be potentially used in further studies to develop novel therapeutic alternatives based on l-asparaginase.

Combinatorial entropy behaviour leads to range selective binding in ligand-receptor interactions

From viruses to nanoparticles, constructs functionalized with multiple ligands display peculiar binding properties that only arise from multivalent effects. Using statistical mechanical modelling, we describe here how multivalency can be exploited to achieve what we dub range selectivity, that is, binding only to targets bearing a number of receptors within a specified range. We use our model to characterise the region in parameter space where one can expect range selective targeting to occur, and provide experimental support for this phenomenon. Overall, range selectivity represents a potential path to increase the targeting selectivity of multivalent constructs.

Polymersomes Eradicating Intracellular Bacteria

Mononuclear phagocytes such as monocytes, tissue-specific macrophages, and dendritic cells are primary actors in both innate and adaptive immunity. These professional phagocytes can be parasitized by intracellular bacteria, turning them from housekeepers to hiding places and favoring chronic and/or disseminated infection. One of the most infamous is the bacteria that cause tuberculosis (TB), which is the most pandemic and one of the deadliest diseases, with one-third of the world's population infected and an average of 1.8 million deaths/year worldwide. Here we demonstrate the effective targeting and intracellular delivery of antibiotics to infected macrophages both in vitro and in vivo, using pH-sensitive nanoscopic polymersomes made of PMPC-PDPA block copolymer. Polymersomes showed the ability to significantly enhance the efficacy of the antibiotics killing Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and another established intracellular pathogen, Staphylococcus aureus. Moreover, they demonstrated to easily access TB-like granuloma tissues-one of the harshest environments to penetrate-in zebrafish models. We thus successfully exploited this targeting for the effective eradication of several intracellular bacteria, including M. tuberculosis, the etiological agent of human TB.

LRP-1 functionalized polymersomes enhance the efficacy of carnosine in experimental stroke

Stroke is one of the commonest causes of death with limited treatment options. L-Carnosine has shown great promise as a neuroprotective agent in experimental stroke, but translation to the clinic is impeded by the large doses needed. We developed and evaluated the therapeutic potential of a novel delivery vehicle which encapsulated carnosine in lipoprotein receptor related protein-1 (LRP-1)-targeted functionalized polymersomes in experimental ischemic stroke. We found that following ischemic stroke, polymersomes encapsulating carnosine exhibited remarkable neuroprotective effects with a dose of carnosine 3 orders of magnitude lower than free carnosine. The LRP-1-targeted functionalization was essential for delivery of carnosine to the brain, as non-targeted carnosine polymersomes did not exhibit neuroprotection. Using Cy3 fluorescence in vivo imaging, we showed that unlike non-targeted carnosine polymersomes, LRP-1-targeted carriers accumulated in brain in a time dependent manner. Our findings suggest that these novel carriers have the ability to deliver neuroprotective cargo effectively to the brain.

Macrophage Targeting pH Responsive Polymersomes for Glucocorticoid Therapy

Glucocorticoid (GC) drugs are the cornerstone therapy used in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Here, we report pH responsive poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine)–poly(2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PMPC–PDPA) polymersomes as a suitable nanoscopic carrier to precisely and controllably deliver GCs within inflamed target cells. The in vitro cellular studies revealed that polymersomes ensure the stability, selectivity and bioavailability of the loaded drug within macrophages. At molecular level, we tested key inflammation-related markers, such as the nuclear factor-κB, tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6. With this, we demonstrated that pH responsive polymersomes are able to enhance the anti-inflammatory effect of loaded GC drug. Overall, we prove the potential of PMPC–PDPA polymersomes to efficiently promote the inflammation shutdown, while reducing the well-known therapeutic limitations in GC-based therapy.

Metabolically Active, Fully Hydrolysable Polymersomes

The synthesis and aqueous self-assembly of a new class of amphiphilic aliphatic polyesters are presented. These AB block polyesters comprise polycaprolactone (hydrophobe) and an alternating polyester from succinic acid and an ether-substituted epoxide (hydrophile). They self-assemble into biodegradable polymersomes capable of entering cells. Their degradation products are bioactive, giving rise to differentiated cellular responses inducing stromal cell proliferation and macrophage apoptosis. Both effects emerge only when the copolymers enter cells as polymersomes and their magnitudes are size dependent.

New protocol for optimisation of polymer composition for imprinting of peptides and proteins

A novel screening tool for high-throughput optimisation of monomer composition for imprinting of peptides and proteins.

Molecular bionics - engineering biomaterials at the molecular level using biological principles

Life and biological units are the result of the supramolecular arrangement of many different types of molecules, all of them combined with exquisite precision to achieve specific functions. Taking inspiration from the design principles of nature allows engineering more efficient and compatible biomaterials. Indeed, bionic (from bion-, unit of life and -ic, like) materials have gained increasing attention in the last decades due to their ability to mimic some of the characteristics of nature systems, such as dynamism, selectivity, or signalling. However, there are still many challenges when it comes to their interaction with the human body, which hinder their further clinical development. Here we review some of the recent progress in the field of molecular bionics with the final aim of providing with design rules to ensure their stability in biological media as well as to engineer novel functionalities which enable navigating the human body.

Specific Drug Delivery to Cancer Cells with Double-Imprinted Nanoparticles against Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a tyrosine kinase receptor, is over-expressed in many tumors, including almost half of triple-negative breast cancers. The latter belong to a very-aggressive and drug-resistant form of malignancy. Although humanized anti-EGFR antibodies can work efficiently against these cancers both as monotherapy and in combination with genotoxic drugs, instability and high production costs are some of their known drawbacks in clinical use. In addition, the development of antibodies to target membrane proteins is a very challenging task. Accordingly, the main focus of the present work is the design of supramolecular agents for the targeting of membrane proteins in cancer cells and, hence, more-specific drug delivery. These were produced using a novel double-imprinting approach based on the solid-phase method for preparation of molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (nanoMIPs), which were loaded with doxorubicin and targeted toward a linear epitope of EGFR. Additionally, upon binding, doxorubicin-loaded anti-EGFR nanoMIPs elicited cytotoxicity and apoptosis only in those cells that over-expressed EGFR. Thus, this approach can provide a plausible alternative to conventional antibodies and sets up a new paradigm for the therapeutic application of this class of materials against clinically relevant targets. Furthermore, nanoMIPs can promote the development of cell imaging tools against difficult targets such as membrane proteins.

Biocompatible pH-responsive nanoparticles with a core-anchored multilayer shell of triblock copolymers for enhanced cancer therapy

Drug nanocarriers are synthesised via a facile self-assembly approach using gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) as a structural core. The nanocarriers feature a multilayer shell of POEGMA-PDPA-PMPC triblock copolymers with a chain-end thiol functional group for anchoring to the Au NP surface. This water-soluble triblock copolymer was synthesised via atom transfer radical polymerisation (ATRP) from a bi-functional initiator containing a disulphide bridge. The resultant nanocarriers exhibit high biocompatibility plus excellent colloidal stability and antifouling capability in bio-media (50% PBS/FBS). Encapsulation and release of a hydrophobic drug can be effectively triggered by a pH-stimulus. Meanwhile drug-loaded nanocarriers show enhanced efficacy towards cancer cells compared to plain drug.

A Ni-2,2′-bisdipyrrinato complex as a potential sensitizer: synthesis and photoelectrochemical characterization

A novel Ni-based 2,2′-bisdipyrrinato complex bearing peripheral benzoic acid groups (Ni-bisdpmCOOH), able upon excitation to inject electrons into TiO₂, has been synthesized and characterized.

Cyclometalated Pt(ii) complexes with a bidentate Schiff-base ligand displaying unexpected cis/trans isomerism: synthesis, structures and electronic properties

Unexpected cis/trans isomerism in a bis-cyclometalated Pt(ii) complex is investigated by NMR, X-ray diffraction, optical, electrochemical and computational methods and rationalized.

Improvement of DNA recognition through molecular imprinting: hybrid oligomer imprinted polymeric nanoparticles (oligoMIP NPs)

Here we describe the production and characterization of oligoMIP NPs in which we have preorganized the oligonucleotide binding by molecular imprinting technology.

Comparison of metal free polymer–dye conjugation strategies in protic solvents

Introducing the TAD chemistry to the field of polymer–dye conjugations to broaden the toolbox of metal- and additive-free linking methods.

Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: An update (2009-2014)

Mycotoxins are a problematic and toxic group of small organic molecules that are produced as secondary metabolites by several fungal species that colonise crops. They lead to contamination at both the field and postharvest stages of food production with a considerable range of foodstuffs affected, from coffee and cereals, to dried fruit and spices. With wide ranging structural diversity of mycotoxins, severe toxic effects caused by these molecules and their high chemical stability the requirement for robust and effective detection methods is clear. This paper builds on our previous review and summarises the most recent advances in this field, in the years 2009-2014 inclusive. This review summarises traditional methods such as chromatographic and immunochemical techniques, as well as newer approaches such as biosensors, and optical techniques which are becoming more prevalent. A section on sampling and sample treatment has been prepared to highlight the importance of this step in the analytical methods. We close with a look at emerging technologies that will bring effective and rapid analysis out of the laboratory and into the field.

Contact X-ray microscopy of living cells by using LiF crystal as imaging detector

In this paper, the use of lithium fluoride (LiF) as imaging radiation detector to analyse living cells by single-shot soft X-ray contact microscopy is presented. High resolved X-ray images on LiF of cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya VRUC135, two unicellular microalgae of the genus Chlamydomonas and mouse macrophage cells (line RAW 264.7) have been obtained utilizing X-ray radiation in the water window energy range from a laser plasma source. The used method is based on loading of the samples, the cell suspension, in a special holder where they are in close contact with a LiF crystal solid-state X-ray imaging detector. After exposure and sample removal, the images stored in LiF by the soft X-ray contact microscopy technique are read by an optical microscope in fluorescence mode. The clear image of the mucilaginous sheath the structure of the filamentous Leptolyngbya and the visible nucleolus in the macrophage cells image, are noteworthiness results. The peculiarities of the used X-ray radiation and of the LiF imaging detector allow obtaining images in absorption contrast revealing the internal structures of the investigated samples at high spatial resolution. Moreover, the wide dynamic range of the LiF imaging detector contributes to obtain high-quality images. In particular, we demonstrate that this peculiar characteristic of LiF detector allows enhancing the contrast and reveal details even when they were obscured by a nonuniform stray light.

Generation of novel hybrid aptamer-molecularly imprinted polymeric nanoparticles

A strategy to exploit aptamers as recognition elements of molecularly imprinted polymeric nanoparticles (AptaMIP NPs) is presented, via modification of the chemical structure of the DNA. It is demonstrated that the introduction of this modified "aptamer monomer" results in an increase of the affinity of the produced MIP NPs, without altering their physical properties such as size, shape, or dispersibility.

Influence of surface-imprinted nanoparticles on trypsin activity

Here, the modulation of enzyme activity is presented by protein-imprinted nanoparticles produced using a solid-phase approach. Using trypsin as target, binding of the nanoparticles to the enzyme results in its inhibition or in stabilization, depending on the orientation of the immobilized enzyme used during imprinting.

Flake size-dependent cyto and genotoxic evaluation of graphene oxide on in vitro A549, CaCo2 and vero cell lines

This study was carried out by varying both graphene oxide (GO) concentration (10 μg/mL, 50 μg/mL, 100 μg/mL) and flakes sizes of 1320 nm and 130 nm. Characterization by scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy demonstrate that the area of GO flakes varies of one order of magnitude but their chemical structure remains unmodified. A 24-h cytotoxicity test showed, for A549, a loss in the viability, while the test exhibits overall a positive increase in the viability for CaCo2 and Vero. A 24-h comet assay shows a marked GO genotoxicity: for micrometer-sized GO flakes the genotoxicity is in positive correlation with the concentration, while for nanometer-sized GO flakes there was a high degree of genotoxicity at the lowest concentration tested.

Optimisation of the synthesis of vancomycin-selective molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles using automatic photoreactor

A novel optimized protocol for solid-state synthesis of molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (nanoMIPs) with specificity for antibiotic vancomycin is described. The experimental objective was optimization of the synthesis parameters (factors) affecting the yield of obtained nanoparticles which have been synthesized using the first prototype of an automated solid-phase synthesizer. Applications of experimental design (or design of experiments) in optimization of nanoMIP yield were carried out using MODDE 9.0 software. The factors chosen in the model were the amount of functional monomers in the polymerization mixture, irradiation time, temperature during polymerization, and elution temperature. In general, it could be concluded that the irradiation time is the most important and the temperature was the least important factor which influences the yield of nanoparticles. Overall, the response surface methodology proved to be an effective tool in reducing time required for optimization of complex experimental conditions.

Automatic reactor for solid-phase synthesis of molecularly imprinted polymeric nanoparticles (MIP NPs) in water

We report the development of an automated chemical reactor for solid-phase synthesis of MIP NPs in water. Operational parameters are under computer control, requiring minimal operator intervention. In this study, "ready for use" MIP NPs with sub-nanomolar affinity are prepared against pepsin A, trypsin and α-amylase in only 4 hours.

Besides the HLA loci: SNPs and non-HLA gene products as immunoregulatory factors in the onset of psoriatic arthritis subtypes

Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is described as a multifactorial autoimmune rheumatic disease although its development is surely linked to some specific HLA genes (especially the HLA-Cw*06:02 allele). To date, its complex immunopathogenetic mechanism is not well clarified. Actually, increasing evidence suggest that qualitative and quantitative interplays between some PsA-susceptibility HLA alleles and other genetic, regulatory and environmental factors, may develop distinct subphenotypes of PsA. We first provide a brief summary of current knowledge about the various PsA conditions. Then, we consider the reasons why further analysis of the clinical course of patients affected by distinct PsA subsets, and who receive different therapeutic treatments, should be carried out in conjunction with deeper investigations about the identification of key genes and immunoregulatory agents by applying the most recent advances in biotechnology. This approach could better explain the molecular mechanisms responsible for both the onset and progression of this multi-faceted pathology with the purpose of significantly improving the management of PsA patients.

Solid-Phase Synthesis of Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Nanoparticles with a Reusable Template - "Plastic Antibodies"

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) are generic alternatives to antibodies in sensors, diagnostics and separations. To displace biomolecules without radical changes in infrastructure in device manufacture, MIPs should share their characteristics (solubility, size, specificity and affinity, localized binding domain) whilst maintaining the advantages of MIPs (low-cost, short development time and high stability) hence the interest in MIP nanoparticles. Herein we report a reusable solid-phase template approach (fully compatible with automation) for the synthesis of MIP nanoparticles and their precise manufacture using a prototype automated UV photochemical reactor. Batches of nanoparticles (30-400 nm) with narrow size distributions imprinted with: melamine (d = 60 nm, Kd = 6.3 × 10-8 m), vancomycin (d = 250 nm, Kd = 3.4 × 10-9 m), a peptide (d = 350 nm, Kd = 4.8 × 10-8 m) and proteins have been produced. Our instrument uses a column packed with glass beads, bearing the template. Process parameters are under computer control, requiring minimal manual intervention. For the first time we demonstrate the reliable re-use of molecular templates in the synthesis of MIPs (≥ 30 batches of nanoMIPs without loss of performance). NanoMIPs are produced template-free and the solid-phase acts both as template and affinity separation medium.

Surface-modified multifunctional MIP nanoparticles

The synthesis of core-shell molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (MIP NPs) has been performed using a novel solid-phase approach on immobilised templates. The same solid phase also acts as a protective functionality for high affinity binding sites during subsequent derivatisation/shell formation. This procedure allows for the rapid synthesis, controlled separation and purification of high-affinity materials, with each production cycle taking just 2 hours. The aim of this approach is to synthesise uniformly sized imprinted materials at the nanoscale which can be readily grafted with various polymers without affecting their affinity and specificity. For demonstration purposes we grafted anti-melamine MIP NPs with coatings which introduce the following surface characteristics: high polarity (PEG methacrylate); electro-activity (vinylferrocene); fluorescence (eosin acrylate); thiol groups (pentaerythritol tetrakis(3-mercaptopropionate)). The method has broad applicability and can be used to produce multifunctional imprinted nanoparticles with potential for further application in the biosensors, diagnostics and biomedical fields and as an alternative to natural receptors.

Immunogenetics and Hplc Analyses Contribute to Understanding the Etiopathology of Rheumatoid Arthritis through Studies on Ancient Human Remains

Genetic investigations on ancient human remains affected by rheumatological pathologies are a research field of particular interest for identifying origins and the etiopathology of diseases, especially those having an autoimmune background such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We wish to demonstrate how reliable studies concerning this topic require collaboration between multiple disciplines, usually starting from paleopathologic observations up to immunogenetic screening, even involving analytical chemistry. Here, we focused our investigation on the skeleton of Cardinal Carlo de'Medici (1595–1666) for whom RA and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) were postulated after paleopathologic examination. RA susceptibility is linked to specific HLA alleles belonging to DRB1*04 locus, such as DRB1*0401, while Cw*0602 and DRB1*07 predispose to PsA. Thus, we genotyped the Cardinal's remains to search for RA or PsA “risk genes”. Ancient DNA is often subjected to hydrolysis followed by fragmentation. For this reason, all immunogenetic tests were preceded by an original RP-HPLC-FL method able to inform on the ancient DNA preservation and the extent of contamination, with the purpose of avoiding the risk of false positive results. After DNA isolation from a piece of bone from the Cardinal, PCR-SSP and reverse-SSO hybridization assays were applied to perform genomic HLA-typing. RP-HPLC-FL analysis revealed a good preservation of DNA without contamination by exogenous genomes. Molecular tests assigned to the Cardinal the genotype DRB1*0401/*1102 for HLA-DRB locus and Cw*04/*12 for HLA-C locus, data that support a genetic predisposition for RA but not for PsA. This multidisciplinary study has allowed us: (i) to ascertain that the remains undoubtledy belonged to the specific subject, Cardinal Carlo de'Medici; (ii) to sustain that the subject suffered from RA rather then that PsA, and (iii) to state that RA was already widespread in Europe at the Renaissance age, despite some authors claiming that the disease was introduced to the Old Continent from America after colonization during the 18th century

Advances in the manufacture of MIP nanoparticles

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are prepared by creating a three-dimensional polymeric matrix around a template molecule. After the matrix is removed, complementary cavities with respect to shape and functional groups remain. MIPs have been produced for applications in in vitro diagnostics, therapeutics and separations. However, this promising technology still lacks widespread application because of issues related to large-scale production and optimization of the synthesis. Recent developments in the area of MIP nanoparticles might offer solutions to several problems associated with performance and application. This review discusses various approaches used in the preparation of MIP nanoparticles, focusing in particular on the issues associated with large-scale manufacture and implications for the performance of synthesized nanomaterials.

[Update on the laparoscopic adrenal surgery in the second decade of the century: "doubts no more?]

Laparoscopic adrenal surgery has significantly improved during the last years. Thus at the moment it is possible to define such technique as the therapeutic "Gold Standard" option in the treatment of the adrenal tumors. However, some doubts are still remaining concerning the feasibility of laparoscopic adrenalectomy in case of malignant adrenal tumors, hyper-vascular tumors (pheochromocytoma) and indeterminate incidentaloma. This study aimed to review all the literature of the last three years (only article with abstracts) using the criteria of selection of the Cochrane Library, in order to find class I and class II-III studies which are able to surely or, respectively, probably respond to the various questions yet to be answered Two hundred and twelve papers have been selected. The class I studies stated the following evidences: laparoscopic treatment of pheochromocytoma is the Gold Standard too, independently from the dimension; the short term results of laparoscopic anterior and posterior approach are equivalent to those of the lateral one. Doubts still remain concerning the role of laparoscopy in the treatment of metastases, big pheochromocytomas, small size incidentalomas (risk of over-treatement). Nearly no respond has been given to others issues such as "the single port techniques" in laparoscopic adrenalectomy, the role of radiofrequency laparoscopic ablation of the adrenal tumor, the kind of treatment of stadium I and II adrenocortical carcinoma and big size (> 8 cm) tumors, the management of non-functioning incidentaloma of 4-6 cm, the role of the robot, and, finally, the approach of the bilateral tumors. We conclude that, despite many issues on the feasibility and safety of laparoscopy in the adrenal surgery have been definitely clarified, so that such technique has been declared the "Gold Standard" method in the treatment of the adrenal tumor, doubts still remain in some aspects of this method. However, since the researches in this field are proceeding with high evolution velocity, in the next future most of the questions that are still present should be definitively adressed.

Saponaria officinalis karyology and karyotype by means of image analyzer and atomic force microscopy

The aim of this work was to offer a contribution to the characterization of taxonomic entity of Saponaria officinalis (2n = 28; an herbaceous perennial species; saporin, a type 1 Ribosome Inactivating Protein, is present in leaves and seeds) by a cytogenetic and karyomorphological approach. We investigated the karyotype's morphometry correlated with Stebbin's symmetric index; the same information has been used for computing the indices resemblance between chromosomes (REC), symmetric indices (SYI), and total form (TF%) which allow the comparison between species and evaluation of karyological evolution. Fluorescence intensities of the stained nuclei were measured by a flow cytometer and, for the first time, values for nuclear DNA content were estimated by comparing nuclei fluorescence intensities of the test population with those of appropriate internal DNA standards. Our study is also aimed to introduce chromosomal volumes, which were determined by atomic force microscopy (AFM), as novel karyomorphological parameter which could allow for chromosome discrimination especially when tiny ones are present.

Mapping the intake of different elements in vegetal tissues by dual-energy X-ray imaging at DaPhine synchrotron light source

This article reports on the first utilization of the soft X-ray beamline at the DaPhine synchrotron light source for mapping the intake of different elements in plant tissues. As a test, the method of dual-energy X-ray microradiography was applied to the investigation of the natural sulfur content in dried leaf and root samples. Our ultimate goal was to monitor the pollutant lead and its intake, which was added in controlled doses to the hydroponic medium of laboratory-controlled samples of vegetal species. The results obtained by the nondestructive X-ray radiographic analysis are compared to the values of concentrations determined by a standard chemical analysis utilizing atomic absorption spectroscopy. From this comparison the validity of the X-ray detection of heavy metals in biological samples has been confirmed. The superposition of the dual energy results on the simple planar radiography shows the representation of the pollutant intake directly on the sample structures. It should be pointed out that this method, developed here for plant root and leaves could be applied to any biological sample of interest, but the preparation and observation conditions necessitate different strategies according to the type of sample under analysis.

Monitoring of the heavy-metal hyperaccumulation in vegetal tissues by X-ray radiography and by femto-second laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

This article reports on the utilization of X-ray microradiography and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) techniques for investigation of the metal accumulation in different part of leaf samples. The potential of the LIBS-analysis for finding the proper plant species for phytoremediation is compared with the results of microradiography measurements at the HERCULES source at ENEA, Rome (Italy) and X-ray microradiography experiments at the ELETTRA Synchrotron, Trieste (Italy).

Interactions between saporin, a ribosome-inactivating protein, and DNA: a study by atomic force microscopy

Saporins are enzymes belonging to the PNAG class (polynucleotide: adenosine glycosidase), plant enzymes commonly known as ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIP), as a result of their property of irreversibly damaging eukaryotic ribosomes. Direct imaging with tapping-mode atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used to study pGEM-4Z plasmid DNA binding to the saporin-SO6 (isoform from Saponaria officinalis seeds). Saporin wrapped the plasmidic DNA, and distribution of the enzyme molecules along the DNA chain was markedly variable; plasmid digested with saporin-SO6 appeared fragmented or topologically modified. The supercoiled DNA strands were cleaved, giving rise to a linearized form and to relaxed forms. Electrophoretic analysis of the effect of standard preparations of saporin-SO6 on pGEM-4S confirmed the presence of DNA strand-cleaving activity.

Raltitrexed plus oxaliplatin as first-line chemotherapy in metastatic colorectal carcinoma: a multicentric phase II trial

For advanced colorectal carcinoma, two new drugs, raltitrexed (TOM) and oxaliplatin (L-OHP), have recently shown interesting results. Preclinical and clinical studies suggest that this combination, because of its favorable toxicity profile, high response rate and convenient schedule of administration, can be administered successfully in this disease. In our phase II study, 37 non pre-treated patients with metastatic colorectal carcinoma were treated with TOM (3 mg/m(2)) and L-OHP (130 mg/m(2)) every 3 weeks. In total, 222 cycles were administered; all patients received at least 2 cycles (median 6, range 2-8). There were two complete and 14 partial responses for an overall response rate of 43% (95% CI 27-69%). The median time to response was 2.5 months (range 2-4) and the median duration was 10.3 months (range 5-18). Twelve of the 23 (52%) patients with symptomatic colorectal cancer were classified as clinical benefit responders for at least 4 weeks during the study period. Treatment was well tolerated, and both acute, essentially hematologic, and cumulative hepatic and neurologic toxicities were manageable and reversible. Response rate and toxic effects observed during this study warrant additional studies comparing this TOM-L-OHP regimen with CPT-11 and/or capacitebine-containing regimens in metastatic colorectal carcinoma.

Stimulating effect of HIV-1 coat protein gp120 on corticotropin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin in the rat hypothalamus: involvement of nitric oxide

Subjects with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection display increased activity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which may play a role in both HIV-related neurodegenerative processes and disease progression. It has been speculated that the HIV coat protein gp120 may be responsible for these changes, and previous experimental evidence in both transgenic and nontransgenic mice supports this view. We speculated that one of the effects of gp120 in the CNS is to act within the hypothalamus to affect both corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), the principal regulators of HPA axis. We therefore administered i.p. gp120 (100 ng/rat) or vehicle to male Wistar rats and then detected Fos protein (an index of neuronal activation), CRH, and AVP immunoreactivity in the cellular compartments of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN). In addition, we tested the direct effect of various concentrations of gp120 on the release of CRH and AVP from rat hypothalamic explants maintained in vitro. Any modulation of gp120 effects by nitric oxide (NO) pathways was also sought by coadministering i.p. to rats or adding to the hypothalamic preparations the NO synthase inhibitor N(G)-methyl-l-arginine (l-NMMA). Gp120 induced the expression of Fos protein in both the parvo- and the magnocellular PVN, which was significantly attenuated by l-NMMA 10(-6) nM/L (P < 0.001 vs gp120 alone). Double immunochemistry showed costaining for Fos protein and CRH or AVP in the PVN following gp120; the number of double-labeled CRH and AVP cells for Fos protein was markedly reduced (P < 0.001) by coadministration of l-NMMA 10(-6) nM/L. In the in vitro studies, addition of gp120 to the hypothalamic explants in the dose range of 10 pM-1 nM resulted in a clear stimulation of both CRH and AVP release (P < 0.05-0.001 compared to control); in the presence of l-NMMA at 10-fold higher concentrations the stimulatory effect of gp120 on the release of both peptides was completely lost. It would therefore appear that gp120 activates CRH and AVP-producing neurons in the hypothalamic PVN and stimulates the release of both peptides in vitro via NO-dependent mechanisms. These findings, in line with previous evidence, further suggest that the increased activity of the HPA axis associated with HIV infection may be of central origin, due to the effects of gp120 on hypothalamic CRH and AVP release.

[Gastrointestinal stromal tumors. A case of small intestine stromal tumor (SIST) with an uncertain biological aspect]

Tumors of the small intestine are relatively rare. The diagnosis is difficult to establish because the symptoms are vague and non-specific. Although the small intestine constitutes 75% of the length and over 90% of the mucosal surface area of the gastrointestinal tract, only 1 to 2% of gastrointestinal malignancies occur in this segment. Metastases are usually present at the time of diagnosis. The outcome of these patients can be improved if the possibility of a malignant small bowel tumor is considered in all cases of unexplained abdominal pain or gastrointestinal bleeding, especially in younger age. Malignant tumors occur with increasing frequency in distal small bowel with a preponderance of malignant lesions in the ileum compared with the jejunum and the duodenum. Adenocarcinoma is the most common tumor of the primary malignant small bowel tumors, followed by carcinoid, lymphoma and leiomyosarcoma. Mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, traditionally regarded as smooth muscle tumors, have demonstrated different cellular differentiations based on immunohistochemical and ultrastructural features. Therefore the terms leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma have been replaced by a more encompassing term, gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST). The majority of GISTs occurs in the stomach; stromal tumors involving the small intestine (SISTs) are far less common but seem to have greater malignant potential. The clinical a case of a small intestinal stromal tumor (SIST), localised in the jejunum and characterised by an uncertain histological aspect, is presented and a review of the literature is made.