CaZnO-based nanoghosts for the detection of ssDNA, pCRISPR and recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen and targeted delivery of doxorubicin

Overexpression of proteins/antigens and other gene-related sequences in the bodies could lead to significant mutations and refractory diseases. Detection and identification of assorted trace concentrations of such proteins/antigens and/or gene-related sequences remain challenging, affecting different pathogens and making viruses stronger. Correspondingly, coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) mutations/alterations and spread could lead to overexpression of ssDNA and the related antigens in the population and brisk activity in gene-editing technologies in the treatment/detection may lead to the presence of pCRISPR in the blood. Therefore, the detection and evaluation of their trace concentrations are of critical importance. CaZnO-based nanoghosts (NGs) were synthesized with the assistance of a high-gravity technique at a 1,800 MHz field, capitalizing on the use of Rosmarinus officinalis leaf extract as the templating agent. A complete chemical, physical and biological investigation revealed that the synthesized NGs presented similar morphological features to the mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), resulting in excellent biocompatibility, interaction with ssDNA- and/or pCRISPR-surface, through various chemical and physical mechanisms. This comprise the unprecedented synthesis of a fully inorganic nanostructure with behavior that is similar to MSCs. Furthermore, the endowed exceptional ability of inorganic NGs for detective sensing/folding of ssDNA and pCRISPR and recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen (RSCSA), along with in-situ hydrogen peroxide detection on the HEK-293 and HeLa cell lines, was discerned. On average, they displayed a high drug loading capacity of 55%, and the acceptable internalizations inside the HT-29 cell lines affirmed the anticipated MSCs-like behavior of these inorganic-NGs.

Synthesis of green benzamide-decorated UiO-66-NH2 for biomedical applications

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) biocompatible systems can host enzymes/bacteria/viruses. Herein we synthesized a series of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH)-decorated UiO-66-NH₂ based on Citrus tangerine leaf extract for drug delivery and biosensor applications. Five chemically manipulated FAAH-like benzamides were localized on the UiO-66-NH₂ surface with physical interactions. Comprehensive cellular and molecular analyses were conducted on HEK-293, HeLa, HepG2, PC12, MCF-7, and HT-29 cell lines (cytotoxicity assessment after 24 and 48 h). MTT results proved above 95 and 50% relative cell viability in the absence and presence of the drug, respectively. A complete targeted drug-releasing capability of nanocarriers was demonstrated after capping with leaf extract from Citrus tangerine, with a stimuli-responsive effect in acidic media. Targeted delivery was complete to the nucleus and cytoplasm of HT-29 cell, but merely to the cytoplasm of HeLa cell lines. Nanocarrier could be targeted for drug delivery to the cytoplasm of the HeLa cell line and to both the nucleus and cytoplasm of HT-29 cell lines. MOF-based nanocarriers proved authentic in vivo towards kidney and liver tissues with targeted cancerous cells efficiently. Besides, FAAH-like molecules revealed optical biosensor potential with high selectivity (even ˂5 nM LOD) towards ssDNA, sgRNA, and Anti-cas9 proteins.

Green porous benzamide-like nanomembranes for hazardous cations detection, separation, and concentration adjustment

Green biomaterials play a crucial role in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases as well as health-related problem-solving. Typically, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mechanical strength are requirements centered on biomaterial engineering. However, in-hospital therapeutics require an elaborated synthesis of hybrid and complex nanomaterials capable of mimicking cellular behavior. Accumulation of hazardous cations like K⁺ in the inner and middle ear may permanently damage the ear system. We synthesized nanoplatforms based on Allium noeanum to take the first steps in developing biological porous nanomembranes for hazardous cation detection in biological media. The 1,1,1-tris[[(2'-benzyl-amino-formyl)phenoxy]methyl]ethane (A), 4-amino-benzo-hydrazide (B), and 4-(2-(4-(3-carboxy-propan-amido)benzoyl)hydrazineyl)-4-oxobutanoic acid (B1) were synthesized to obtain green ligands based on 4-X-N-(…(Y(hydrazine-1-carbonyl)phenyl)benzamide, with X denoting fluoro (B2), methoxy (B3), nitro (B4), and phenyl-sulfonyl (B5) substitutes. The chemical structure of ligand-decorated adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules (S-ATP) was characterized by FTIR, XRD, AFM, FESEM, and TEM techniques. The cytotoxicity of the porous membrane was patterned by applying different cell lines, including HEK-293, PC12, MCF-7, HeLa, HepG2, and HT-29, to disclose their biological behavior. The morphology of cultured cells was monitored by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The sensitivity of S-ATP to different cations of Na⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Ba²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Cd²⁺ was evaluated by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) in terms of extraction efficiency (η). For pH of 5.5, the η of A-based S-ATP followed the order Na⁺ (63.3%) > Mg²⁺ (62.1%) > Ba²⁺ (7.6%) > Ca²⁺ (5.5%); while for pH of 7.4, Na⁺ (37.0%) > Ca²⁺ (33.1%) > K⁺ (25^.7%). The heat map of MTT and dose-dependent evaluations unveiled acceptable cell viability of more than 90%. The proposed green porous nanomembranes would pave the way to use multifunctional green porous nanomembranes in biological membranes.

Calcium-based nanomaterials and their interrelation with chitosan: optimization for pCRISPR delivery

There have been numerous advancements in the early diagnosis, detection, and treatment of genetic diseases. In this regard, CRISPR technology is promising to treat some types of genetic issues. In this study, the relationship between calcium (due to its considerable physicochemical properties) and chitosan (as a natural linear polysaccharide) was investigated and optimized for pCRISPR delivery. To achieve this, different forms of calcium, such as calcium nanoparticles (CaNPs), calcium phosphate (CaP), a binary blend of calcium and chitosan including CaNPs/Chitosan and CaP/Chitosan, as well as their tertiary blend including CaNPs-CaP/Chitosan, were prepared via both routine and green procedures using Salvia hispanica to reduce toxicity and increase nanoparticle stability (with a yield of 85%). Such materials were also applied to the human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cell line for pCRISPR delivery. The results were optimized using different characterization techniques demonstrating acceptable binding with DNA (for both CaNPs/Chitosan and CaNPs-CaP/Chitosan) significantly enhancing green fluorescent protein (EGFP) (about 25% for CaP/Chitosan and more than 14% for CaNPs-CaP/Chitosan).

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40097-021-00446-1.

Turning Toxic Nanomaterials into a Safe and Bioactive Nanocarrier for Co-delivery of DOX/pCRISPR

Hybrid bioactive inorganic-organic carbon-based nanocomposites of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanosheets enlarged with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were decorated to provide a suitable space for in situ growth of CoNi₂S₄ and green-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles. The ensuing nanocarrier supplied π-π interactions between the DOX drug and a stabilizing agent derived from leaf extracts on the surface of ZnO nanoparticles and hydrogen bonds; gene delivery of (p)CRISPR was also facilitated by chitosan and alginate renewable macromolecules. Also, these polymers can inhibit the potential interactions between the inorganic parts and cellular membranes to reduce the potential cytotoxicity. Nanocomposite/nanocarrier analyses and sustained DOX delivery (cytotoxicity analyses on HEK-293, PC12, HepG2, and HeLa cell lines after 24, 48, and 72 h) were indicative of an acceptable cell viability of up to 91.4 and 78.8% after 48 at low and high concentrations of 0.1 and 10 μg/mL, respectively. The MTT results indicate that by addition of DOX to the nanostructures, the relative cell viability increased after 72 h of treatment; since the inorganic compartments, specifically CoNi₂S₄, are toxic, this is a promising route to increase the bioavailability of the nanocarrier before reaching the targeted cells. Nanosystems were tagged with (p)CRISPR for co-transfer of the drug/genes, where confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) pictures of the 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) were indicative of appropriate localization of DOX into the nanostructure with effective cell and drug delivery at varied pH. Also, the intrinsic toxicity of CoNi₂S₄ does not affect the morphology of the cells, which is a breakthrough. Furthermore, the CLSM images of the HEK-293 and HeLa cell displayed effective transport of (p)CRISPR into the cells with an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) of up to 8.3% for the HEK-293 cell line and 21.4% for the HeLa cell line, a record. Additionally, the specific morphology of the nanosystems before and after the drug/gene transport events, via images by TEM and FESEM, revealed an intact morphology for these biopolymers and their complete degradation after long-time usage.

Polymer-Coated NH2-UiO-66 for the Codelivery of DOX/pCRISPR

Herein, the NH₂-UiO-66 metal organic framework (MOF) has been green synthesized with the assistance of high gravity to provide a suitable and safe platform for drug loading. The NH₂-UiO-66 MOF was characterized using a field-emission scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction, and zeta potential analysis. Doxorubicin was then encapsulated physically on the porosity of the green MOF. Two different stimulus polymers, p(HEMA) and p(NIPAM), were used as the coating agents of the MOFs. Doxorubicin was loaded onto the polymer-coated MOFs as well, and a drug payload of more than 51% was obtained, which is a record by itself. In the next step, pCRISPR was successfully tagged on the surface of the modified MOFs, and the performance of the final nanosystems were evaluated by the GFP expression. In addition, successful loadings and internalizations of doxorubicin were investigated via confocal laser scanning microscopy. Cellular images from the HeLa cell line for the UiO-66@DOX@pCRISPR and GMA-UiO-66@DOX@pCRISPR do not show any promising and successful gene transfections, with a maximum EGFP of 1.6%; however, the results for the p(HEMA)-GMA-UiO-66@DOX@pCRISPR show up to 4.3% transfection efficiency. Also, the results for the p(NIPAM)-GMA-UiO-66@DOX@pCRISPR showed up to 6.4% transfection efficiency, which is the first and superior report of a MOF-based nanocarrier for the delivery of pCRISPR. Furthermore, the MTT assay does not shown any critical cytotoxicity, which is a promising result for further biomedical applications. At the end of the study, the morphologies of all of the nanomaterials were screened after drug and gene delivery procedures and showed partial degradation of the nanomaterial. However, the cubic structure of the MOFs has been shown in TEM, and this is further proof of the stability of these green MOFs for biomedical applications.

ZnAl nano layered double hydroxides for dual functional CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and enhanced green fluorescence protein biosensor

Evaluation of the effect of different parameters for designing a non-viral vector in gene delivery systems has great importance. In this manner, 2D crystals, precisely layered double hydroxides, have attracted the attention of scientists due to their significant adjustability and low-toxicity and low-cost preparation procedure. In this work, the relationship between different physicochemical properties of LDH, including pH, size, zeta potential, and synthesis procedure, was investigated and optimized for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and reverse fluorescence response to the EGFP. In this manner, ZnAl LDH and ZnAl HMTA LDH were synthesized and characterized and applied in the HEK-293 cell line to deliver CRISPR/Cas9. The results were optimized by different characterizations as well as Gel Electrophoresis and showed acceptable binding ability with the DNA that could be considered as a promising and also new gold-standard for the delivery of CRISPR/Cas9. Also, the relationship of the presence of tertiary amines (in this case, hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA) as the templates) in the structure of the ZnAl LDH, as well as the gene delivery application, was evaluated. The results showed more than 79% of relative cell viability in most of the weight ratios of LDH to CRISPR/Cas9; fully quenching the fluorescence intensity of the EGFP/LDH in the presence of 15 µg mL-1 of the protoporphyrins along with the detection limit of below 2.1 µg mL-1, the transfection efficiency of around 33% of the GFP positive cell for ZnAl LDH and more than 38% for the ZnAl LDH in the presence of its tertiary amine template.

Improved green biosynthesis of chitosan decorated Ag- and Co3O4-nanoparticles: A relationship between surface morphology, photocatalytic and biomedical applications

AgNPs@Chitosan and Co₃O₄-NPs@Chitosan were fabricated with Salvia hispanica. Results showed MZI values of 5 and 30 mm for Co₃O₄-NPs- and AgNPs@Chitosan against S. aureus, and 15 and 21 mm for Co₃O₄-NPs- and AgNPs@Chitosan against E. coli (24 h, 20 μg/mL), respectively. MTT assays showed up to 80% and 90%, 71% and 75%, and 91% and 94% mammalian cell viability for the green synthesized, chemically synthesized AgNPs and green synthesized AgNPs@Chitosan for HEK-293 and PC12 cells, respectively, and 70% and 71%, 59% and 62%, and 88% and 73% for the related Co₃O₄-NPs (24 h, 20 μg/mL). The photocatalytic activities showed dye degradation after 135 and 105 min for AgNPs@Chitosan and Co₃O₄-NPs@Chitosan, respectively. FESEM results showed differences in particle sizes (32 ± 3.0 nm for the AgNPs and 41 ± 3.0 nm for the Co₃O₄NPs) but AFM results showed lower roughness of the AgNPs@Chitosan (7.639 ± 0.85 nm) compared to Co₃O₄NPs@Chitosan (9.218 ± 0.93 nm), which resulted in potential biomedical applications.

Green synthesis of CuO- and Cu2O-NPs in assistance with high-gravity: The flowering of nanobiotechnology

This study, for the first time, reports the synthesis of CuO- and Cu2O nanoparticles (NPs) using the Salvia hispanica extract by a high-gravity technique. The original green synthesis procedure led to the formation of nanoparticles with promising catalytic and biological properties. The synthesized nanoparticles were fully characterized and their catalytic activity was evaluated through a typical Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition (AAC) reaction. The potential antibacterial activity against gram positive (S. aureus) and gram negative (E. coli) bacteria were investigated. It was shown that the antibacterial properties were independent of the NP morphology as well as of the texture of the synthesis media. As a result, the presently synthesized nanoparticles showed very good photocatalytic and catalytic activities in comparison with the literature. From a biological perspective, they showed lower cytotoxicity in comparison with the literature, and also showed higher antioxidant and antibacterial activities. Thus, these present green CuO and Cu2O nanoparticles deserve further attention to improve numerous medical applications.

Biodegradable Nanopolymers in Cardiac Tissue Engineering: From Concept Towards Nanomedicine

Cardiovascular diseases are the number one cause of heart failure and death in the world, and the transplantation of the heart is an effective and viable choice for treatment despite presenting many disadvantages (most notably, transplant heart availability). To overcome this problem, cardiac tissue engineering is considered a promising approach by using implantable artificial blood vessels, injectable gels, and cardiac patches (to name a few) made from biodegradable polymers. Biodegradable polymers are classified into two main categories: natural and synthetic polymers. Natural biodegradable polymers have some distinct advantages such as biodegradability, abundant availability, and renewability but have some significant drawbacks such as rapid degradation, insufficient electrical conductivity, immunological reaction, and poor mechanical properties for cardiac tissue engineering. Synthetic biodegradable polymers have some advantages such as strong mechanical properties, controlled structure, great processing flexibility, and usually no immunological concerns; however, they have some drawbacks such as a lack of cell attachment and possible low biocompatibility. Some applications have combined the best of both and exciting new natural/synthetic composites have been utilized. Recently, the use of nanostructured polymers and polymer nanocomposites has revolutionized the field of cardiac tissue engineering due to their enhanced mechanical, electrical, and surface properties promoting tissue growth. In this review, recent research on the use of biodegradable natural/synthetic nanocomposite polymers in cardiac tissue engineering is presented with forward looking thoughts provided for what is needed for the field to mature.

Biosynthesis of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles with Potential Biomedical Applications

Introduction

In recent years, the use of cost-effective, multifunctional, environmentally friendly and simple prepared nanomaterials/nanoparticles have been emerged considerably. In this manner, different synthesizing methods were reported and optimized, but there is still lack of a comprehensive method with multifunctional properties.

Materials and Methods

In this study, we aim to synthesis the copper oxide nanoparticles using Achillea millefolium leaf extracts for the first time. Catalytic activity was investigated by in situ azide alkyne cycloaddition click and also A³ coupling reaction, and optimized in terms of temperature, solvent, and time of the reaction. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of the synthesized nanoparticles was screened in terms of degradation methylene blue dye. Biological activity of the synthesized nanoparticles was evaluated in terms of antibacterial and anti-fungal assessments against Staphylococcus aureus, M. tuberculosis, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. mirabili, C. diphtheriae and S. pyogenes bacteria's and G. albicans, A. flavus, M. canis and G. glabrata fungus. In the next step, the biosynthesized CuO-NPs were screened by MTT and NTU assays.

Results

Based on our knowledge, this is a comprehensive study on the catalytic and biological activity of copper oxide nanoparticles synthesizing from Achillea millefolium, which presents great and significant results (in both catalytic and biological activities) based on a simple and green procedure.

Conclusion

Comprehensive biomedical and catalytic investigation of the biosynthesized CuO-NPs showed the mentioned method leads to synthesis of more eco-friendly nanoparticles. The in vitro studies showed promising and considerable results, and due to the great stability of these nanoparticles in a green media, effective biological activity considered as an advantageous.

Green Synthesis of ZnO NPs via Salvia hispanica: Evaluation of Potential Antioxidant, Antibacterial, Mammalian Cell Viability, H1N1 Influenza Virus Inhibition and Photocatalytic Activities

Among different forms of metallic nanoparticles (NPs), zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs with a very special bandgap of 3.37 eV and considerable binding energy of excitation (60 meV at room temperature), have been classified as high-tech nanoparticles. This study aimed to synthesize ZnO NPs using the extract from Salvia hispanica leaves. The synthesized nanoparticles were fully characterized and the photocatalytic activity was evaluated through the degradation of methylene blue. Additionally, the potential in vitro biological activities of such ZnO NPs in terms of their antibacterial activity were determined, as well as their antioxidant (30 minutes), antiviral (48 hours) and mammalian cell viability properties (48 and 72 hours). This study is the first investigation into the synthesis of such green ZnO NPs mediated by this plant extract, in which both photocatalytic and biomedical properties were found to be promising. The IC50 values for the antibacterial activities were found to be around 17.4 μg mL–1 and 28.5 μg mL–1 for S. aureus and E. coli, respectively, and the antioxidant activity was comparable with the standard BHT. However, the H1N1 inhibition rate using the present green ZnO NPs was lower than oseltamivir (up to about 40% for ZnO NPs and above 90% for oseltamivir) which was expected since it is a drug, but was higher than many synthetic nanoparticles reported in the literature. In addition, the mammalian cell viability assay showed a higher than 80% cellular viability in the presence of 5, 10 and 20 μg mL–1 nanoparticles, and showed a higher than 50% cellular viability in the presence of 50 and 75 μg mL–1 nanoparticles. In this manner, this study showed that these green ZnO NPs should be studied for a wide range of medical applications.

High-Gravity-Assisted Green Synthesis of NiO-NPs Anchored on the Surface of Biodegradable Nanobeads with Potential Biomedical Applications

Here, an unprecedented synthesis method for nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO-NPs) was facilitated using Salvia hispanica leaf extracts with the assistance of a high gravity rotating packed bed (RPB) system that enabled fast mass transfer and molecular mixing. The synthesized nanoparticles were anchored on the surface of biodegradable chitosan nanobeads and their photocatalytic activity was evaluated by the degradation of methylene blue. Additionally, the potential biological activities of NiO-NPs in terms of antibacterial (Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli for 24 hours), cytotoxicity (using the PC12 cell line for 24 and 72 hours), and antioxidant activities (based on the discoloration of the methanolic solution of DPPH) were assessed. This novel approach for NiO-NPs@Chitosan synthesis as mediated by a renewable plant extract and facilitated by a high-gravity method, led to the greener synthesis of nanoparticles with significant antibacterial and photocatalytic properties.