Degradation of polypropylene by fungi Coniochaeta hoffmannii and Pleurostoma richardsiae

The urgent need for better disposal and recycling of plastics has motivated a search for microbes with the ability to degrade synthetic polymers. While microbes capable of metabolizing polyurethane and polyethylene terephthalate have been discovered and even leveraged in enzymatic recycling approaches, microbial degradation of additive-free polypropylene (PP) remains elusive. Here we report the isolation and characterization of two fungal strains with the potential to degrade pure PP. Twenty-seven fungal strains, many isolated from hydrocarbon contaminated sites, were screened for degradation of commercially used textile plastic. Of the candidate strains, two identified as Coniochaeta hoffmannii and Pleurostoma richardsiae were found to colonize the plastic fibers using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Further experiments probing degradation of pure PP films were performed using C. hoffmannii and P. richardsiae and analyzed using SEM, Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR). The results showed that the selected fungi were active against pure PP, with distinct differences in the bonds targeted and the degree to which each was altered. Whole genome and transcriptome sequencing was conducted for both strains and the abundance of carbohydrate active enzymes, GC content, and codon usage bias were analyzed in predicted proteomes for each. Enzymatic assays were conducted to assess each strain's ability to degrade naturally occurring compounds as well as synthetic polymers. These investigations revealed potential adaptations to hydrocarbon-rich environments and provide a foundation for further investigation of PP degrading activity in C. hoffmannii and P. richardsiae.

Trait diversity shapes the carbon cycle

Trait evolution is shaped by carbon economics at the organismal level. Here, we expand this idea to the ecosystem level and show how the trait diversity of ecological communities influences the carbon cycle. Systematic shifts in trait diversity will likely trigger changes in the carbon cycle.

Variation of wood color and chemical composition in the stem cross-section of oak (Quercus spp.) trees, with special attention to the sapwood-heartwood transition zone

The transformation of sapwood (SW) into heartwood (HW) during ageing of wood tissues is the result of physiological and biochemical changes initiated in the transition zone (TZ). These changes contribute to the evolution of active (living) wood cells in SW into less/non-active (dead) wood cells in HW. Previous studies established that the biosynthesis of extractive contents is the most prominent process that occurs in the TZ. To improve our understanding of the extent and characteristics of the TZ in oak wood, the present study reports the results of color parameters (using CIELab color space) and molecular structure and composition of polysaccharide and lignin compounds (using FTIR-ATR and Py-GC-MS). For that purpose, six wood cores from individual living oak (Quercus spp.) trees were collected from two forests with similar environmental conditions, located in the Basque Country (Northern Spain). The color data indicated significant differences between SW, TZ and HW by showing that SW samples were characterized by higher hue (h°) and lower redness (a*) values than the HW, and intermediate values for the TZ. They also suggested that the variations of wood color from SW to HW occur gradually, along a wide TZ counting 4-10 measurement points in a row, depending on the tree. Furthermore, FTIR and Py-GC-MS data gave evidence of the variation trends of polysaccharide and lignin contents in the radial direction, through various FTIR ratios (1735/1325, 1590/1735, 1590/1230, and 1230/1325 cm^-1) and one pyrolysis ratio (acetic acid/total polysaccharide: Ps01/Tot_Ps). The observed variations in this present study suggest that the cross-sectional transition patterns can be related to the continuous lignification process of xylem parenchyma cells, as well as the storage of polysaccharide compounds. These results contribute to our fundamental knowledge on the TZ, which may be valuable in research and industrial applications where a clear delimitation of sapwood and/or heartwood is required.

Structural equation modelling of mercury intra-skeletal variability on archaeological human remains

Archaeological burial environments are useful archives to investigate the long-term trends and the behaviour of mercury. In order to understand the relationship between mercury, skeletons and soil, we applied Partial Least Squares - Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to a detailed, multisampling (n = 73 bone samples +37 soil samples) design of two archaeological graves dating to the 6th to 7th centuries CE (A Lanzada site, NW Spain). Mercury content was assessed using a DMA-80, and data about bone structure and the grave soil/sediments were obtained using FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. The theoretical model is supported by proxies of bone structure, grave soil/sediments, and location of the bone within the skeleton. The general model explained 61 % of mercury variance. Additionally, Partial Least Square - Prediction Oriented Segmentation (PLS-POS) was also used to check for segmentation in the dataset. POS revealed two group of samples depending on the bone phase (hydroxyapatite or collagen) controlling the Hg content, and the corresponding models explained 86 % and 76 % of Hg variance, respectively. The results suggest that mercury behaviour in the graves is complex, and that mercury concentrations were influenced by i) the ante-mortem status of the bone matrix, related to the weight of each bone phase; ii) post-mortem evolution of bone crystallinity, where bone loses mercury with increasing alteration; and iii) the proximity of the skeletal pieces to mercury target organs, as decomposition and collapse of the thoracic and abdominal soft tissues causes a secondary mercury enrichment in bones from the body trunk during early post-mortem. Skeletons provide a source of mercury to the soil whereas soil/sediments contribute little to skeletal mercury content.

Preservation of microscopic fur, feather, and bast fibers in the Mesolithic ochre grave of Majoonsuo, Eastern Finland

The study of animal and plant fibers related to grave furnishing, garments, and grave goods in thousands-of-year-old burials provides new insights into these funerary practices. Their preservation presupposes favorable conditions, where bacterial and fungal activity is at a minimum, as in anaerobic, wet, salty, arid, or frozen environments. The extreme acidic-soil environments (i.e., podzols) of Finland pose a challenge when it comes to studying funerary deposits, as human remains are rarely found. However, its potential to preserve microparticles allows us to approach the funerary event from a totally different point of view. Here, we present the first multiproxy analyses of a Mesolithic deposit from Finland. A red-ochre burial of a child found in Majoonsuo is studied by analyzing 1) microscopic fibers, 2) fatty acids, and 3) physical-chemical (CIELab color, pH, grain size) properties of 60 soil samples and associated materials. The microscopic fibers evidenced the remains of waterfowl downy feathers, a falcon feather fragment, canid and small rodent hairs as well as bast fibers. These could have been used in furnishing the grave and as ornaments or clothes. Canid hairs could belong to a dog inhumation, or more likely to canid fur used as grave good/clothes. Samples with microparticles have more long-chain and unsaturated fatty acids, although animal species identification was not possible. Soil properties indicate that the burial was made in the local soil, adding homogeneous red ochre and removing the coarser material; no bioturbation was found. The highly acidic sandy soil, together with a slight increase in finer particles when ochre is abundant, probably resulted in micro-scale, anoxic conditions that prevented bacterial attack. This study reveals the first animal hairs and feathers from a Finnish Mesolithic funerary context, and provides clues about how their preservation was possible.

Understanding Necrosol pedogenetical processes in post-Roman burials developed on dunes sands

In Archaeology much emphasis is dedicated to bone preservation, but less attention is paid to the burial soil (i.e., Necrosol), despite its crucial role in governing the geochemical environment. The interaction between human remains and sediments starts after inhumation, leading to bidirectional physico-chemical changes. To approach these complex, bidirectional processes, we sampled at high resolution (n = 46) two post-Roman wooden coffin burials (one single and another double), and the coeval paleosol (n = 20; nearby pedo-sedimentary sequence). The samples were analysed for physical (grain size, colour) and chemical (pH; LOI; elemental composition: FTIR-ATR, XRF, C, N) properties. Principal component analysis enabled to identify five main pedogenetical processes: decalcification, melanization, acidification, neoformation of secondary minerals (i.e., clays) and enrichment in phosphorus. Melanization, acidification and phosphorous enrichment seem to be convergent processes in Necrosols-irrespective of the parent material. Decalcification may be restricted to carbonate containing soil/sediments. Despite not mentioned in previous research, clay formation might also be an overall process. Compared to the local, coeval paleosol, pedogenesis in the studied burial soils was low (double burial) to moderate (single burial). Our results also emphasize the need to study the finer soil fractions, as they provide clues both on soil formation and bone diagenesis.

Approaching mercury distribution in burial environment using PLS-R modelling

Mercury environmental cycle and toxicology have been widely researched. Given the long history of mercury pollution, researching mercury trends in the past can help to understand its behaviour in the present. Archaeological skeletons have been found to be useful sources of information regarding mercury loads in the past. In our study we applied a soil multi-sampling approach in two burials dated to the 5th to 6th centuries AD. PLRS modelling was used to elucidate the factors controlling mercury distribution. The model explains 72% of mercury variance and suggests that mercury accumulation in the burial soils is the result of complex interactions. The decomposition of the bodies not only was the primary source of mercury to the soil but also responsible for the pedogenetic transformation of the sediments and the formation of soil components with the ability to retain mercury. The amount of soft tissues and bone mass also resulted in differences between burials, indicating that the skeletons were a primary/secondary source of mercury to the soil (i.e. temporary sink). Within burial variability seems to depend on the proximity of the soil to the thoracic area, where the main mercury target organs were located. We also conclude that, in coarse textured soils, as the ones studied in this investigation, the finer fraction (i.e. silt + clay) should be analysed, as it is the most reactive and the one with the higher potential to provide information on metal cycling and incipient soil processes. Finally, our study stresses the need to characterise the burial soil environment in order to fully understand the role of the interactions between soil and skeleton in mercury cycling in burial contexts.

Structural equation modeling of long-term controls on mercury and bromine accumulation in Pinheiro mire (Minas Gerais, Brazil)

The application of statistical modeling is still infrequent in mercury research in peat, despite the ongoing debate on the weight of the diverse factors (climate, peat decomposition, vegetation changes, etc.) that may affect mercury accumulation. One of the few exceptions is the Hg record of Pinheiro mire (souheast Brazil). Previous studies on this mire modeled mercury using principal components regression and partial least squares. These methods assume independence between factors, which is seldom the case in natural systems, thus hampering the identification of mediating effects and interactions. To overcome these limitations, in this reserach we use structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to model mercury and bromine peat records - bromine has been used in some investigations to normalize mercury accumuation. The mercury model explained 83% of the variance and suggested a complex control: increased peat decomposition, dust deposition and humid climates enhanced mercury accumulation, while increased mineral fluxes resulted in a decrease in mercury accumulation. The bromine model explained 90% of the variation in concentrations: increased dust deposition and peat decomposition promoted bromine accumulation, while time (i.e. peat age) promoted bromine depletion. Thus, although mercury and bromine are both organically bound elements with relevant atmospheric cycles the weights of the factors involved in their accumulation differed significantly. Our results suggest caution when using bromine to normalize mercury accumulation. PLS-SEM results indicate a large time dependence of peat decomposition, catchment mineral fluxes, long-term climate change, and atmospheric deposition; while atmospheric dust, mineral fluxes and peat decomposition showed high to moderate climate dependency. In particular, they also point to a relevant role of autogenic processes (i.e. the build up and expansion of the mire within the catchment), which controlled local mineral fluxes; an aspect that has seldom been considered.

Long-term dynamics of production in western Mediterranean seagrass meadows: Trade-offs and legacies of past disturbances

Seagrasses are marine angiosperms that can form highly productive, and valuable underwater meadows, which are currently in regression. A reliable assessment of their status and future evolution requires studies encompassing long-term temporal scales. With the aim of understanding seagrass ecosystem dynamics over the last centuries and millennia, twelve sediment cores were studied from seagrass meadows located along the Andalusian coast and at the Cabrera Island (western Mediterranean). This study is pioneer in using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy as a tool to study environmental change in seagrass sediments. FTIR is a form of vibrational spectroscopy that provides information about the sediment chemical composition. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to summarise spatio-temporal data of the FTIR vibratory peaks in combination with climate and geochemical proxy data. Several PCA signals were identified: (1) one likely related to the relative changes of the main primary producers and the sedimentary environment (carbonate or siliciclastic sediments, with aromatic or aliphatic organic matter); (2) the marine community production (polysaccharides, total organic matter content and biogenic silica); and (3) the seagrass production (aromatics, carbohydrates, phenols, proteins and lipids). A decrease of seagrass production along the mainland coast was evident since AD ~1850, which may be due to combined negative impacts of seawater warming, local anthropogenic impacts, and extreme setting conditions. The legacy of these combined stressors might have influenced the current poor state of seagrass meadows in the Alboran Sea. Our results also revealed a significant long-term trade-off between the level of seagrass production and its temporal stability (calculated as the inverse of the coefficient of variation). This study provides a reliable baseline data, helping to assess the magnitude of seagrass regression and its drivers. This paleoecological information can help design more targeted management plans and identify meadows where local management could be more efficient.

Deciphering organic matter sources and ecological shifts in blue carbon ecosystems based on molecular fingerprinting

Blue carbon ecosystems (BCE) play an essential role in the global carbon cycle by removing atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it as organic carbon (OC) in biomass and sediments. However, organic matter (OM) deposition and degradation/preservation processes are poorly understood, especially on the long-term and at molecular scales. We analysed sediment samples from six cores collected in tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses (up to 150 cm long cores spanning up to 10,000 yrs of OC accumulation) from Spencer Gulf (South Australia), by pyrolysis (Py-GC-MS and THM-GC-MS), and we compared the results with elemental and stable isotope data, to decipher OM provenance and to assess degradation/preservation dynamics. The results showed that: (1) the major biopolymers preserved were polysaccharides, polyphenolic moieties (lignin and tannin) and polymethylenic moieties (e.g. cutin, suberin, chlorophyll) with smaller apportions of proteins and resins; (2) the OM originates predominantly from vascular plant materials (in particular lignocellulose) that have been well-preserved, even in some of the oldest sediments; (3) mangroves were found to be the most efficient OC sinks, partially explained by syringyl lignin preservation; (4) seagrasses were shown to store polysaccharide-enriched OM; (5) large proportions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surficial tidal marsh and mangrove sediments probably reflect pyrogenic OM from industrial combustion, and; (6) "ecosystem shifts", i.e. mangrove encroachment in tidal marsh and transition from seagrass to mangrove, were detected. Deposition environment and source vegetation control OC sequestration and there is no specific recalcitrant form of OM that is selectively preserved. For the first time, we demonstrate how analytical pyrolysis in combination with stable isotope analysis can be used to reconstruct (palaeo-)ecological shifts between different BCE. This study improves our knowledge on OC accumulation dynamics and the response of BCE to environmental change, which can inform the implementation of strategies for climate change mitigation.

Factors regulating primary producers' assemblages in Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile ecosystems over the past 1800 years

Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile meadows are highly productive coastal marine ecosystems that provide multiple ecosystem services. The seagrass is not always the major contributor to total primary production, however, little is known about long-term changes in the composition of primary producers within seagrass meadows. Understanding compositional shifts within the community of primary producers is crucial to evaluate how climate and anthropogenic change affect the functioning of seagrass ecosystems. Here we analysed marker pigment composition in seagrass cores from two bays of the Cabrera Island (Balearic Islands, Spain) to asses long-term changes in phototrophic community composition and production in seagrass meadows, and identify the environmental factors triggering those changes. The proxy dataset was explored using principal component analyses (PCA): one including the pigment dataset to look for associations between producers' groups, and another one combining the pigment dataset with plausible local and global regulatory factors to assess the environmental drivers of change. Analyses of characteristic pigments and morphological fossils (cysts) showed that the abundance of dinoflagellates increased over the last 150-300 years, coeval with a rise in solar irradiance and air temperature. When compared among embayments, pigments from cyanobacteria predominated in seagrass meadows located at Es Port, a sheltered bay receiving higher terrestrial runoff; whereas pigments from diatoms, seagrasses and rodophytes were more common at Santa Maria, an exposed bay with clearer waters. Water depth also played a role in controlling the phototrophic community composition, with greater abundance of diatoms in the shallowest waters (<5 m). Overall, our results suggested that historical and spatial variation in seagrass meadows' phototrophic community composition was influenced by the interaction between local factors (catchment-bay characteristics) and global climate processes (energy influx). Together these patterns forecast how marine primary producers and seagrass ecosystem structure may respond to future global warming.

Human bones tell the story of atmospheric mercury and lead exposure at the edge of Roman World

Atmospheric metal pollution is a major health concern whose roots pre-date industrialization. This study pertains the analyses of ancient human skeletons and compares them with natural archives to trace historical environmental exposure at the edge of the Roman Empire in NW Iberia. The novelty of our approach relies on the combination of mercury, lead and lead isotopes. We found over a 700-year period that rural Romans incorporated two times more mercury and lead into their bones than post-Romans inhabiting the same site, independent of sex or age. Atmospheric pollution sources contributed on average 57% (peaking at 85%) of the total lead incorporated into the bones in Roman times, which decreased to 24% after the decline of Rome. These values and accompanying changes in lead isotopic composition mirror changes in atmospheric Pb deposition recorded in local peatlands. Thus, skeletons are a time-transgressive archive reflecting contaminant exposure.

FTIR and Py-GC-MS data of wood from various living oak species and Iberian shipwrecks

Data in this article are related to the chemical characterization of various oak wood samples. Data have been obtained by the application of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py–GC–MS) to living tree species and shipwreck wood fragments. Measurements were performed on individual rings in order to facilitate the understanding of the variability in wood chemical composition along the radial cores, i.e. the same kind of material traditionally used for dendrochronological analysis. The data in this article is labelled according to the anatomical sections of the wood (sapwood, transition wood and heartwood) where the samples were taken. The experimental background and the results can be found in the related research article, “Chemometric tools for identification of wood from different oak species and their potential for provenancing of Iberian shipwrecks (16th–18th centuries CE)” (Traoré et al., 2018).

Industrial-era lead and mercury contamination in southern Greenland implicates North American sources

To study the long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants from lower latitude industrial areas to the Arctic, we analysed a peat core spanning the last ~700cal.yr (~1300-2000CE) from southern Greenland, an area sensitive to atmospheric pollution from North American and Eurasian sources. A previous investigation conducted in the same location recorded atmospheric lead (Pb) pollution after ~1845, with peak values recorded in the 1970s, and concluded that a North American source was most likely. To confirm the origin of the lead, we present new Pb isotope data from Sandhavn, together with a high-resolution record for mercury (Hg) deposition. Results demonstrate that the mercury accumulation rate has steadily increased since the beginning of the 19th century, with maximum values of 9.3μgm^-2yr^-1 recorded ~1940. Lead isotopic ratios show two mixing lines: one which represents inputs from local and regional geogenic sources, and another that comprises regional geogenic and pollution sources. Detrending the Pb isotopic ratio record (thereby extracting the effect of the geogenic mixing) has enabled us to reconstruct a detailed chronology of metal pollution. The first sustained decrease in Pb isotope signals is recorded as beginning ~1740-1780 with the lowest values (indicating the highest pollution signature) dated to ~1960-1970. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratio of excess Pb (measuring 1.222, and reflecting pollution-generated Pb), when compared with the Pb isotopic composition of the Sandhavn peat record since the 19th century and the timing of Pb enrichments, clearly points to the dominance of pollution sources from North America, although it did not prove possible to further differentiate the emissions sources geographically.

Differentiation between pine woods according to species and growing location using FTIR-ATR

Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy was applied to 120 samples of heartwood rings from eight individual pine trees from different locations in Spain. Pinus sylvestris cores were collected at the Artikutza natural park (Ps-ART). Pinus nigra cores were collected in Sierra de Cazorla (Pn-LIN) and in La Sagra Mountain (Pn-LSA). Three discriminant analysis tests were performed using all bands (DF_T), lignin bands only (DF_L) and polysaccharides bands only (DF_P), to explore the ability of FTIR-ATR to separate between species and growing location. The DF_L model enabled a good separation between pine species, whereas the DF_P model enabled differentiation for both species and growing location. The DF_T model enabled virtually perfect separation, based on two functions involving twelve FTIR bands. Discrimination between species was related to bands at 860 and 1655 cm^-1, which were more intense in P. sylvestris samples, and bands at 1425 and 1635 cm^-1, more intense in P. nigra samples. These vibrations were related to differences in lignin structure and polysaccharide linear chains. Discrimination between growing locations was mainly related to polysaccharide absorptions: at 900, 1085 and 1335 cm^-1 more representative of Pn-LIN samples, and at 1105 and 1315 cm^-1 mostly associated to Pn-LSA samples. These absorptions are related to β-glycosidic linkages (900 cm^-1), cellulose and hemicellulose (C-O bonds, 1085 and 1105 cm^-1) and content in amorphous/crystalline cellulose (1315 and 1335 cm^-1). These results show that FTIR-ATR in combination with multivariate statistics can be a useful tool for species identification and provenancing for pine wood samples of unknown origin.

Early atmospheric metal pollution provides evidence for Chalcolithic/Bronze Age mining and metallurgy in Southwestern Europe

Although archaeological research suggests that mining/metallurgy already started in the Chalcolithic (3rd millennium BC), the earliest atmospheric metal pollution in SW Europe has thus far been dated to ~3500-3200 cal.yr. BP in paleo-environmental archives. A low intensity, non-extensive mining/metallurgy and the lack of appropriately located archives may be responsible for this mismatch. We have analysed the older section (>2100 cal.yr. BP) of a peat record from La Molina (Asturias, Spain), a mire located in the proximity (35-100 km) of mines which were exploited in the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age, with the aim of assessing evidence of this early mining/metallurgy. Analyses included the determination of C as a proxy for organic matter content, lithogenic elements (Si, Al, Ti) as markers of mineral matter, and trace metals (Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb) and stable Pb isotopes as tracers of atmospheric metal pollution. From ~8000 to ~4980 cal.yr. BP the Pb composition is similar to that of the underlying sediments (Pb 15 ± 4 μg g(-1); (206)Pb/(207)Pb 1.204 ± 0.002). A sustained period of low (206)Pb/(207)Pb ratios occurred from ~4980 to ~2470 cal.yr. BP, which can be divided into four phases: Chalcolithic (~4980-3700 cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb ratios decline to 1.175 and Pb/Al ratios increase; Early Bronze Age (~3700-3500 cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb increase to 1.192 and metal/Al ratios remain stable; Late Bronze Age (~3500-2800 cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb decline to their lowest values (1.167) while Pb/Al and Zn/Al increase; and Early Iron Age (~2800-2470 cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb increase to 1.186, most metal/Al ratios decrease but Zn/Al shows a peak. At the beginning of the Late Iron Age, (206)Pb/(207)Pb ratios and metal enrichments show a rapid return to pre-anthropogenic values. These results provide evidence of regional/local atmospheric metal pollution triggered by the earliest phases of mining/metallurgy in the area, and reconcile paleo-environmental and archaeological records.

Modeling the downward transport of (210)Pb in Peatlands: Initial Penetration-Constant Rate of Supply (IP-CRS) model

The vertical distribution of (210)Pb is commonly used to date peat deposits accumulated over the last 100-150 years. However, several studies have questioned this method because of an apparent post-depositional mobility of (210)Pb within some peat profiles. In this study, we introduce the Initial Penetration–Constant Rate of Supply (IP-CRS) model for calculating ages derived from 210Pb profiles that are altered by an initial migration of the radionuclide. This new, two-phased, model describes the distribution of atmospheric-derived (210)Pb ((210)Pbxs) in peat taking into account both incorporation of (210)Pb into the accumulating peat matrix as well as an initial flushing of (210)Pb through the uppermost peat layers. The validity of the IP-CRS model is tested in four anomalous (210)Pb peat records that showed some deviations from the typical exponential decay profile not explained by variations in peat accumulation rates. Unlike the most commonly used (210)Pb-dating model (Constant Rate of Supply (CRS)), the IP-CRS model estimates peat accumulation rates consistent with typical growth rates for peatlands from the same areas. Confidence in the IP-CRS chronology is also provided by the good agreement with independent chronological markers (i.e. (241)Am and (137)Cs). Our results showed that the IP-CRS can provide chronologies from peat records where (210)Pb mobility is evident, being a valuable tool for studies reconstructing past environmental changes using peat archives during the Anthropocene.

Application of FTIR spectroscopy to the characterization of archeological wood

Two archeological wood samples were studied by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy. They originate from a shipwreck in Ribadeo Bay in the northwest of Spain and from a beam wood of an old nave of the Cathedral of Segovia in the central Spain. Principal component analysis was applied to the transposed data matrix (samples as columns and spectral bands as rows) of 43 recorded spectra (18 in the shipwreck and 25 in the beam wood). The results showed differences between the two samples, with a larger proportion of carbohydrates and smaller proportion of lignin in the beam than in the shipwreck wood. Within the beam wood, lignin content was significantly lower in the recent than the old tree rings (P=0.005). These variations can be attributed to species differences between the two woods (oak and pine respectively), with a mixture of guaiacyl and syringyl in hardwood lignin, whereas softwood lignin consists almost exclusively of guaiacyl moieties. The influence of environmental conditions on the FTIR fingerprint was probably reflected by enhanced oxidation of lignin in aerated conditions (beam wood) and hydrolysis of carbohydrates in submerged-anoxic conditions (shipwreck wood). Molecular characterization by analytical pyrolysis of selected samples from each wood type confirmed the interpretation of the mechanisms behind the variability in wood composition obtained by the FTIR-ATR.

Mapping soil organic carbon content using spectroscopic and environmental data: A case study in acidic soils from NW Spain

In this study we present a methodology to estimate and map the content of soil organic carbon (SOC) in topsoils using spectroscopic (FTIR-ATR) and environmental raster data. We determined the SOC content in 221 topsoil samples in Galicia (NW Spain) using the Walkley-Black method. FTIR-ATR spectroscopic data was measured upon the same set of samples. The Random Forest (RF) technique was used to link the measured SOC concentrations to the FTIR-ATR measurements in order to identify the relevant absorbance bands explaining most of the variability in SOC. We then used linear regression (MLR) to predict SOC concentrations from the selected FTIR-ATR bands as independent proxy. This model showed a good predictive performance (r-squared=0.88; RSME=2.14; ME=0.05; RPD=3.14), indicating that SOC can be effectively estimated from the identified spectral bands. Finally, we used Partial Least Squares (PLS) to model the spatial distribution of the predictor bands using a number of environmental raster maps (climate, land use and geology) as covariates. This new raster was used within the MLR model previously created to generalize the predictions of SOC in the whole study area. This approach shows that FTIR data can be used to map SOC while minimizing analytical costs and time efforts.

Long-term (∼57 ka) controls on mercury accumulation in the Southern Hemisphere reconstructed using a peat record from Pinheiro mire (Minas Gerais, Brazil)

Natural archives have been used to reconstruct mercury atmospheric deposition at different spatial and temporal scales during the Holocene in the Northern Hemisphere. In this study, we present the results from a Brazilian mountain mire (Pinheiro mire, Minas Gerais, SE Brazil), extending back to ∼57 ka. The core was analyzed for mercury concentration, organic matter content, organic carbon isotopic composition, and tracers of mineral matter flux. Principal components analysis followed by principal components regression enabled us to determine the evolution of the weight of the latent processes governing the accumulation of mercury through time. We show that climate change was the main driver for the variations of mercury concentrations, either indirectly by (i) enhancing soil erosion in the mire's catchment, which led to a decrease in mercury concentration due to dilution by low mercury-containing mineral matter, (ii) increasing regional dust deposition, which resulted in increased concentrations, or directly, by long-term changes in atmospheric wet deposition (arid vs humid periods). Internal peat processes (i.e., decomposition and mass loss) had a minor influence at the time scale represented by the core.

Improving the 210Pb-chronology of Pb deposition in peat cores from Chao de Lamoso (NW Spain)

The natural radionuclide (210)Pb is commonly used to establish accurate and precise chronologies for the recent (past 100-150 years) layers of peat deposits. The most widely used (210)Pb-dating model, Constant Rate of Supply (CRS), was applied using data from three peat cores from Chao de Lamoso, an ombrotrophic mire in Galicia (NW Spain). On the basis of the CRS-chronologies, maximum Pb concentrations and enrichment factors (EFs) occurred in the 1960s and late 1970s, consistent with the historical use of Pb. However, maximum Pb fluxes were dated in the 1940s and the late 1960s, 10 to 20 years earlier. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that, although the (210)Pb distribution was mainly (74%) controlled by radioactive decay, about 20% of the (210)Pb flux variability was associated with atmospheric metal pollution, suggesting an extra (210)Pb supply source and thus invalidating the main assumption of the CRS model. When the CRS-ages were recalculated after correcting for the extra input from the (210)Pb inventory of the uppermost peat layers of each core, Pb flux variations were consistent with the historical atmospheric Pb deposition. Our results not only show the robustness of the CRS model to establish accurate chronologies of recent peat deposits but also provide evidence that there are confounding factors that might influence the calculation of reliable peat accumulation rates (and thus also element accumulation rates/fluxes). This study emphasizes the need to verify the hypotheses of (210)Pb-dating models and the usefulness of a full geochemical interpretation of peat bog records.

Uranium and thorium in weathering and pedogenetic profiles developed on granitic rocks from NW Spain

Uranium and thorium were analyzed in seven weathering and pedogenetic soil profiles developed on granitic rocks from NW Spain. Concentrations were measured by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and the U- and Th-bearing minerals were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS). Both elements were determined in rock, bulk soil and in different grain-size fractions (sand: 2000-50 microm, silt: 50-2 microm, and clay: <2 microm). U concentrations in the rock varied between 5.3 and 27.7 mg kg(-1) and Th concentrations from 5.5 to 50.7 mg kg(-1). The most alkalic rocks can be considered as U-rich granites. Bulk soil U and Th concentrations are similar to those of the rocks (4.8-29.2 and 7.4-56.7 mg kg(-1), respectively), but in the grain-size fractions both elements show the lowest concentrations in the sand and the highest in the clay. In the latter, concentrations are always higher than those of the rocks, particularly in the C horizons with enrichments up to 4 times for U and 5 times for Th. The concentration profiles and the ratios to the parent rock suggest that U and Th are leached from the surface soil and accumulate in the deeper horizons. Mass balance calculations, using Ti as a reference immobile element, also support U and Th leaching in the solum and supergene enrichment in bottom horizons. Leaching seems to be more intense on horizons with gravel content higher than 20%. The leaching of U and Th in the topmost horizons and the accumulation in the bottom soil horizons can be considered as a natural attenuation of the impact of these radiogenic elements in the environment. But their enrichment in the potentially airborne fraction poses some risk of redistribution in the ecosystems.

La reconstrucción de paleoambientes cuaternarios: ideas, ejemplos y una síntesis de la evolución del Holoceno en el NW de la Península Ibérica

This paper is the consequence af an invited presentation given at the Facultade de Letras do Porto during lhe II Jornadas do Quaternário «Quaternary, Natural and Cultural Heritage» held at Porto (Portugal). It deals wiith a personal view on how to reconstruct Quaternary palaeonvironments, based on the experience gained during lhe last fifteen years collaborating with researchers of many disciplines, although I have to aknowledge lo archaeologists and prehistoricians for triggering my interest. Present environment can be considered as a dynamic system of emergent complexity, product of the many interactions -feedbacks, couplings, perturbations, inductions, metachronicities, ... – stablished amongst its constituent parts -basically the lithosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere; playing humans an increasing role among biota-. So have to be considered past environments or palaeoenvironments. This complexity demands an integrated, interdisciplinary view of research for a reasonable reconstruction. The object of analysis is the archive, an entity that contains a record of environmental changes -polar and glacier ice and snow, lake and ocean sediments, peat bogs, tree rings, ... - While any property resulting from a change that can be measured and interpreted can be considered as a signal -biotic or abiotic-. Natural archives are the memory of the geosystem. Under the influence of environmental conditions superficial formations of the lithosphere undergo processes that are responsible for their properties - physico-chemical, mineralogical, biological, etc, ... - In this sense, palaeoenvironmental reconstruction tries to follow the inverse intinerary: from present observed properties to stablish the processes related to their genesis and from those we try to uncover the past environments that governed them. Nevertheless, we have to be aware of the fact that progressive and regressive pathways are both likely to have ocurred, so information was sometimes stored and sometimes deleted from the archives. In fact, the further we go back in time the less information we are able toobtain. It is also important to remind that reconstruction is always partial, as it is impossible to obtain cluesof all the complexities, and even some past environments may have had conditions which are not comparable to any present environment. With these ideas as background framework I briefly introduce here some aspects on the properties of archives and signals, propose an approach to Quaternary palaeoenvironments reconstruction, give some insights on the relationships between human activities, archaeological sites and past environments, put some examples of archives we have been using and results obtained, and end up with a synthesis of the Holocene evolution of Northwestern Spain.