A method to evaluate factors influencing the microbial reduction in domestic dishwashers

AIMS

To develop a method that is able to determine the microbial reduction in different dishwasher cleaning cycles and differentiate between different program parameters used.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Stainless steel biomonitors were contaminated with Micrococcus luteus or Entereococcus faecium and cleaned in a specially programmed household dishwasher with different cleaning temperatures and durations. No detergent, bleach-free detergent or detergent containing activated oxygen bleach was used. The logarithmic reduction (LR) was determined. The microbial reduction depended on the cleaning temperature, the duration of the cleaning cycles and the detergent type used. LR increased with higher temperatures, longer cleaning cycles and use of detergent.

CONCLUSIONS

The factors cleaning cycle temperature, cleaning cycle duration, final rinsing temperature and the use of detergent all contributed to the reduction of test-strains in dishwasher cycles. A combination of longer dishwashing cycles and increased temperatures resulted in LR_max of the microbial load.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Cycles in domestic appliances are very diverse; therefore a standardized method to determine their ability to reduce the microbial load is of great use. The method described here is able to demonstrate the reductions achieved by dishwashing cycles with different parameters and might help to find the necessary balance between energy saving and an acceptable level of hygiene.

Exploring child maltreatment and its relationship to alcohol and cannabis use in selected Latin American and Caribbean countries

OBJECTIVES

Research from developed countries shows that child maltreatment increases the risk for substance use and problems. However, little evidence on this relationship is available from developing countries, and recognition of this relationship may have important implications for substance demand reduction strategies, including efforts to prevent and treat substance use and related problems. Latin America and the Caribbean is a rich and diverse region of the world with a large range of social and cultural influences. A working group constituted by the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission and the Center for Addiction and Mental Health in June, 2010 identified research on this relationship as a priority area for a multinational research partnership.

METHODS

This paper examines the association between self-reported child maltreatment and use in the past 12 months of alcohol and cannabis in 2294 university students in seven participating universities in six participating countries: Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama and Uruguay. The research also considers the possible impact of religiosity and minimal psychological distress as factors contributing to resiliency in these samples.

RESULTS

The results showed that experience of maltreatment was associated with increased use of alcohol and cannabis. However, the effects differed depending on the type of maltreatment experienced. Higher levels of religiosity were consistently associated with lower levels of alcohol and cannabis use, but we found no evidence of an impact of minimal psychological distress on these measures.

CONCLUSIONS

This preliminary study shows that the experience of maltreatment may increase the risk of alcohol and cannabis use among university students in Latin American and Caribbean countries, but that higher levels of religiosity may reduce that risk. More work to determine the nature and significance of these relationships is needed.

[Infant feeding practice and later obesity risk. Indications for early metabolic programming]

Metabolic factors acting during limited and sensitive time periods of pre- and postnatal development can induce lasting effects on health and disease risk in later life up to old age, including later obesity risk, which is referred to as early metabolic programming of long-term health. Three meta-analyses of observational studies found that obesity risk at school age was reduced with early breastfeeding compared to formula feeding. We assumed that breastfeeding protects against later obesity by reducing the occurrence of high weight gain in infancy and that one causative factor is the lower protein content of human milk compared to usual infant formulas (the "early protein hypothesis"). We are testing this hypothesis in the European Childhood Obesity Project, a double-blind, randomized clinical trial enrolling 1,678 infants in five countries (Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain). We have randomized healthy infants born at term to receive for the first year infant formula and follow-on formula with higher or lower protein contents, respectively. The follow-up data obtained at age 2 years indicates that feeding formula with reduced protein content normalizes early growth relative to a breastfed reference group and the current WHO growth standard, which may furnish a significant long-term protection against later obesity. We conclude that infant feeding practice has a high potential for long-term health effects. The results obtained should stimulate the review of recommendations and policies for infant formula composition.

The effects of paracetamol (acetaminophen) on hepatic tests in patients who chronically abuse alcohol - a randomized study

BACKGROUND

Retrospective accounts suggest that therapeutic doses of paracetamol can produce severe hepatic injury in patients with putative high-risk conditions, including alcoholism and infectious hepatitis. Metabolism of paracetamol to its hepatotoxic metabolite is enhanced in patients who abuse alcohol, who also have compromised liver defences from depressed hepatic glutathione.

AIM

To determine the effect of paracetamol on serum liver tests of newly abstinent subjects who abuse alcohol, including subjects with hepatitis C infection.

METHODS

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Adult alcohol abusers with a current drinking episode longer than 7 days received either placebo or paracetamol 4 g/day for 5 days.

RESULTS

Of 142 subjects enrolled, 74 received paracetamol and 68 received placebo. Mean ALT activity during treatment increased from 48 to 62 IU/L in the paracetamol group and from 47 to 49 IU/L in the placebo group. Maximum ALT was 238 and 249 IU/L in the paracetamol and control groups respectively. The INR remained unchanged and serum bilirubin decreased in both groups. Subgroup analyses for subjects with alcoholic hepatitis, hepatitis C virus antibody and other subgroups showed no statistical difference between groups.

CONCLUSION

Administration of paracetamol 4 g/day appears safe in newly abstinent patients who abuse alcohol.

Social costs of untreated opioid dependence

Using cost-of-illness methodology applied to a comprehensive survey of 114 daily opiate users not currently in or seeking treatment for their addiction, we estimated the 1996 social costs of untreated opioid dependence in Toronto (Ontario, Canada). The survey collected data on social and demographic characteristics, drug use history, physical and mental health status, the use of health care and substance treatment services, drug use modality and sex-related risks of infectious diseases, sources of income, as well as criminality and involvement with the law enforcement system. The annual social cost generated by this sample, calculated at Canadian $5.086 million, is explained mostly by crime victimization (44.6%) and law enforcement (42.4%), followed by productivity losses (7.0%) and the utilization of health care (6.1%). Applying the $13,100 cost to the estimated 8,000 to 13,000 users and 2.456 million residents living in Toronto yields a range of social cost between $43 and $69 per capita.

Zinc tannate salts of heroin, LAAM and hydromorphone attenuate opiate withdrawal syndrome

The effects of long-acting narcotic agonist preparations on the severe withdrawal syndrome following abrupt cessation of daily injections of codeine phosphate were studied in rats. Twelve hours after the last codeine injections, one injection of either a high or low dose of the zinc tannate salt of heroin, levo-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM) or hydromorphone in slow-release vehicle (SRV) was administered. Body weight, core temperature and hyperirritability scores (Teiger, 1974) were recorded every 6 h for the next 3 days. With the exception of the group that received the lower dose of heroin zinc tannate, all drug-treated groups lost significantly less weight than the SRV controls. All rats injected with either LAAM or hydromorphone zinc tannate exhibited prolonged marked hyperthermia, but the low, the high dose heroin groups and the SRV groups showed no significant differences in diurnal temperature patterns. Rats treated with the narcotic agonists were generally less irritable, as indicated by lower Teiger scores. These results indicate that a single injection of heroin, LAAM or hydromorphone zinc tannate can ameliorate the characteristic and intense signs of abstinence following withdrawal from codeine.

Dependence in rats after one injection of heroin-, LAAM- or hydromorphone-zinc tannate

Complex zinc tannate salts of heroin, hydromorphone and l-alpha-acetylmethadol were synthesized and injected in a slow-release vehicle, into rats. One, 3, 7, 10 and 14 days after the drug was administered rats were injected with naloxone hydrochloride (10 mg/kg) and during the following 4 hours body weights, core temperature and behavioral signs such as diarrhea, writhing, teeth chattering and wet dog shakes were recorded. On every naloxone testing day the narcotic-treated groups presented behavioral signs of abstinence, but weight loss and temperature changes were much less consistent. Reduction of core temperature following naloxone administration seems to be an earlier indicator of physical dependence than weight loss. According to the parameters tested a level of physical dependence can persist for at least two weeks after a single injection of these narcotic salts.

Analgesia duration and physical dependence in mice after a single injection of three heroin salts and morphine sulphate in various vehicles

Mice were given single s.c. injections of morphine sulphate (M.S.), heroin hydrochloride (H.HCl) and the sparingly-soluble diheroin pamoate (H.Pam) and 3,5-di-tert-butyl-2,6-dihydroxybenzoate (H.Bnz) in three vehicles, saline, peanut oil, or a slow-release vehicle (SRV) and tested for analgesia by both the tail-clip and hotplate techniques. Duration of analgesia as assessed by the tail-clip method was always longer than that by the hotplate when equivalent doses were used in any vehicle. The H.Pam and H.Bnz salts significantly prolonged the analgesia: the mean duration in mice injected with equivalent amounts of heroin base was 3.0 hr for the group receiving heroin HCl in saline and 7.8 hr after H.Bnz in slow-release vehicle. An inverse relationship was evident between the degree of dissociation of H from the three salts, at pH 7.3 and their durations of analgesia in vivo. This was statistically significant (p less than 0.01) at the higher dose level. All mice were challenged with naloxone hydrochloride (1 mg/kg) 24 hr after the injection of each narcotic agonist preparation. The jumping behaviour elicited by naloxone was not consistently related to dose, salt form, or vehicle employed for the injection of agonists, but from 12.5 too 54.2% of all the mice did jump at that time. The durations of analgesia observed and the intensity of the jumping response correlated significantly with the mean number of jumps per mouse after the naloxone challenge.

Duration of analgesia in mice after heroin by two testing methods

The analgestic action in mice of single injections of heroin hydrochloride ranging from 0.3-240mg/kg was measured by the tail-clip and by the hot-plate methods. The duration of analgesia increased as the dose of heroin increased. By the tail-clip technique, the mean effective dose (ED50) (and standard error of estimate) at 30 min was calculated as 1.0 (+/3.42) mg/kg while at 180 min it was 27.5 (+/3.05). By the hot-plate technique the ED50 at 30 min was 4.9 (+/3.13) mg/kg and at 180 min it was 173.8 (+/5.38) mg/kg. The hot-plate method, though less sensitive than the tail-clip method, yields a regression line derived from ED50 values at various testing times of the same slope; thus the two methods give comparable results for changes in analgesia with time. The rate of change of the median analgesic dose of heroin HC1 in mice was calculated to be 2% per minute. In similar mice the acute mean lethal dose for single, subcutaneous injections of heroin HC1 was calculated to be 190.5+/3.01 mg/kg (95% confidence limits).