The Effect of Older Siblings on Language Development as a Function of Age Difference and Sex

The number of older siblings a child has is negatively correlated with the child’s verbal skills, perhaps because of competition for parents’ attention. In the current study, we examined the role of siblings’ sex and age gap as moderating factors, reasoning that they affect older siblings’ tendency to compensate for reduced parental attention. We hypothesized that children with an older sister have better language abilities than children with an older brother, especially when there is a large age gap between the two siblings. We reanalyzed data from the EDEN cohort ( N = 1,154) and found that children with an older sister had better language skills than those with an older brother. Contrary to predictions, results showed that the age gap between siblings was not associated with language skills and did not interact with sex. Results suggest that the negative effect of older siblings on language development may be entirely due to the role of older brothers. Our findings invite further research on the mechanisms involved in this effect.

Maternal tobacco smoking in pregnancy and children's socio-emotional development at age 5: The EDEN mother-child birth cohort study

BACKGROUND

There is debate as to whether maternal tobacco use in pregnancy is related to offspring behaviour later on. We tested this association examining multiple aspects of children's behaviour at age 5 and accounting for parental smoking outside of pregnancy, as well as child and family characteristics.

METHODS

Data come from a prospective community based birth cohort study (EDEN; n=1113 families in France followed since pregnancy in 2003-2005 until the child's 5th birthday). Maternal tobacco use in pregnancy was self-reported. Children's socio-emotional development (emotional symptoms, conduct problems, symptoms of hyperactivity/inattention, peer relationship problems, prosocial behaviour) was assessed by mothers using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) at age 5 years. Logistic regression analyses controlled for Inverse Probability Weights (IPW) of maternal tobacco use calculated based on study center, children's characteristics (sex, premature birth, low birth weight, breastfeeding), maternal characteristics (age at the child's birth, psychological difficulties and alcohol use in pregnancy, post-pregnancy depression, and smoking), paternal smoking in and post-pregnancy, parental educational attainment, family income, parental separation, and maternal negative life events.

RESULTS

Maternal smoking in pregnancy only predicted children's high symptoms of hyperactivity/inattention (sex and study center-adjusted ORs: maternal smoking in the 1st trimester: 1.95, 95%CI: 1.13-3.38; maternal smoking throughout pregnancy: OR=2.11, 95%CI: 1.36-3.27). In IPW-controlled regression models, only children of mothers who smoked throughout pregnancy had significantly elevated levels of hyperactivity/inattention (OR=2.20, 95%CI: 1.21-4.00).

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal tobacco smoking in pregnancy may contribute directly or through epigenetic mechanisms to children's symptoms of hyperactivity/inattention.

Prevalence and characteristics of children with mild intellectual disability in a French county

BACKGROUND

Studies conducted on mild intellectual disability (MID) in children are infrequent and the prevalence rates vary widely. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of MID in children in a French county (Isère), to describe the clinical signs and associated comorbidities, and to specify the aetiologies of this disability.

METHODS

The target population was comprised of the 15 100 children born in 1997 residing in Isère County, France, in 2008. Our goal was to find the children in this group with MID diagnosed between 9 and 13 years of age. MID was defined as an overall IQ score of between 50 and 69 [International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10)]; this definition was adjusted for the study by integrating confidence intervals so that the risk of IQ measurement relativity and possible discrepancy of scores could be taken into account. Children were identified through an administrative data source designed to assist disabled persons that contains health information, and an educational data source. Parents who agreed to let their children participate responded to an in-depth questionnaire on their child's medical and academic history. A genetic investigation was proposed for those children whose MID had an unknown aetiology.

RESULTS

The preliminary selection included 267 children, resulting in a prevalence rate of 18 per 1000 (CI [15.6; 19.9]), within the expected mean. Of these 267 cases, 181 families agreed to participate in the study (68%). MID more often affected boys [male gender ratio = 1.4 (CI [1.2; 1.6])], low socioeconomic groups, and families with a history of intellectual disability. The clinical signs and comorbidities associated with MID were very frequent, with 54% spoken language disorders and 10% pervasive developmental disorder. Only 9% of the children had undergone a genetic investigation before the study. The known aetiology rate for MID was 19% among all the children who had had genetic tests performed.

CONCLUSION

MID is an important public health issue based on its prevalence. The associated clinical signs and comorbidities may be warning signs of MID in case of learning difficulties. This study may help decision-makers to develop and organise screening and care for MID.

Pregnancy in women with portal vein thrombosis: results of a multicentric European study on maternal and fetal management and outcome

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Women of childbearing age account for approximately 25% of patients with non-cirrhotic portal vein thrombosis (PVT). We aimed at assessing maternal and fetal outcome in pregnant women with known PVT.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of the files of women with chronic PVT in three European referral centers between 1986 and 2010.

RESULTS

Forty-five pregnancies, 28 (62%) treated with low molecular weight heparin, occurred in 24 women. Nine (20%) were lost before gestation week 20. Preterm birth occurred in 38% of deliveries: there were 3 births at week 24-25, 7 at week 32-36, and 26 after week 37. A term birth with a healthy infant occurred in 58% of pregnancies. Cesarean section was used in 53% of deliveries. Two women developed HELLP syndrome. A favorable outcome happened in 64% of pregnancies. Pregnancies with an unfavorable outcome were associated with a higher platelet count at diagnosis. Bleeding from esophageal varices occurred in 3 patients during pregnancy, all without adequate primary prophylaxis. Genital or parietal bleeding occurred postpartum in 4 patients, only one being on anticoagulation therapy. Thrombotic events occurred in 2 patients, none related to lower limbs or mesenteric veins. There were no maternal deaths.

CONCLUSIONS

In pregnant PVT patients treated with anticoagulation on an individual basis, the rate of miscarriage and preterm birth appears to be increased. However, fetal and maternal outcomes are favorable for most pregnancies reaching gestation week 20. High platelet counts appear to increase the risk for unfavorable outcome. Pregnancy should not be contraindicated in stable PVT patients.

Height at 2 and 5 years of age in children born very preterm: the EPIPAGE study

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate growth for children born very preterm with particular focus on those born small-for-gestational age (SGA) or with ex utero growth restraint (GR), and to identify risk factors for short stature at 5 years of age.

STUDY DESIGN

Population-based study of children born at less than 33 completed weeks of gestation (Étude Epidémiologique sur les Petits Ages Gestationnels (EPIPAGE)). Short stature was defined as height <-2SD on WHO growth curves. Ex utero GR was considered to have occurred in children with appropriate size for gestational age at birth and with a height and/or weight below -2SD at 2 years of corrected age. Logistic regression models were used to test associations between risk factors and short stature.

RESULTS

The authors measured height at 5 years of age for 1,597 of 2,193 children (73%), 5.6% (95% CI 4.6 to 6.9) of whom were diagnosed as having a short stature. Height was measured at 2 and 5 years of age in 1417 children. Among these, 24% of those born SGA and 36% of those with ex utero GR (p=0.002) had a short stature at 5 years. Predictors of short stature were SGA or birth length <-2SD, maternal height ≤ 160 cm, gestational age <29 weeks and systemic corticosteroids. Breastfeeding at discharge decreased the risk of short stature.

CONCLUSIONS

Short stature at 5 years of age is common in children born preterm. The highest incidence was observed in the group with ex utero GR. Systemic steroids have a long-term impact on growth and should be used with caution. Breastfeeding at discharge appeared to be protective.

[Special outpatient services at 5 and 8 years in very-preterm children in the EPIPAGE study]

The immature brain is highly susceptible to the consequences of very preterm birth with a high rate of long-term neurodisabilities in survivors and high use of specific outpatient services to limit the functional effects of the disabilities. To assess the economic burden for the social and health care system, it is necessary to inventory the community supports and need for special education or rehabilitation used by preterm children. Such studies are few and were done only in extremely low-birthweight or extremely preterm newborns in the United States.

OBJECTIVE

To study the rates of specific outpatient services and special education at 5 years of age and between 5 and 8 years of age in a geographically-defined population of children born very preterm.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PATIENTS

2901 liveborn children before 33 weeks'gestation (WG) and one control group of 666 liveborn children at 39-40WG were included in nine regions of France in 1997 corresponding to more than one third of all births. At five years, these children had a medical examination and were evaluated by a psychologist at local centres organised for the study in every region. Cognitive function was assessed by the mental processing composite scale (PMC) of the Kauffmann Assessement Battery for Children test, which is considered to be equivalent to intelligence quotient and behavioral difficulties using the Strength and Difficulties questionnaire completed by the parents. Data for dependence or compensatory aids, i.e. occupational therapy or physical therapy, speech therapy, psychologist or psychiatrist visits, orthoptic therapy, wearing glasses, wearing hearing aid, specific equipment to walk (walker, wheelchair...), orthopaedic treatment or anti-epileptic treatment were collected from parents. At eight years, a postal questionnaire was sent to the parents to collect data on specific outpatient services and special treatments at home and school. Stata software was used (version 9.0). Main outcome measures. Parent Questionnaire for identifying children with chronic conditions and specific health care needs at 5 and 8 years and categorization of developmental neurodisabilities based on examination of children and psychometric evaluation at 5 years.

RESULTS

At 5 years data were obtained for respectively 1817 and 396 children born before 33WG or at 39-40WG, which represent 80% of the very preterm children and 71% of the at term children. At 8 years we obtained data for 63% of the very preterm children and 59% of the at term children. At 5 years, care in a rehabilitation center and/or specific outpatient services were required for 41% of children born between 24 and 28WG, 32% of children born between 24 and 32WG and 15% of those born at 39-40WG. Between 5 and 8 years, these figures were respectively 61%, 50% and 36%. In the very preterm group, rates of specific outpatient services were higher than 80% if the child had a motor and/or a neurosensory deficit. In case of cognitive deficiencies (PMC < 85), rates of specific outpatient services were low at 37% at 5 years and increases at 63% between 5 and 8 years.

CONCLUSION

Compared to the children born at term, the very preterm children have considerable educational needs, which are inversely related to gestational age at birth and to age of the children at the time of reporting. Despite economic burden, efforts to improve access to services are necessary, in particular in case of cognitive impairment.

Impact of the use of antenatal corticosteroids on mortality, cerebral lesions and 5-year neurodevelopmental outcomes of very preterm infants: the EPIPAGE cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of antenatal corticosteroids (ACS) on neonatal mortality, cerebral lesions and 5-year neurodevelopmental outcome of infants born at 24-27 and 28-32 weeks of gestational age (GA).

DESIGN

Observational population-based study including all births at GAs between 22 and 32 weeks in 1997 in nine regions of France. Survivors were assessed at the age of 5 years.

SAMPLE AND METHODS

The population enrolled in the follow up comprised 2323 infants; there were 23 deaths before age 5 years and outcome at 5 years was available for up to 1781 subjects. Two GA subgroups (24-27 and 28-32 weeks of GA) were analysed separately. Propensity scores were used to reduce bias in the estimation of the association between ACS treatment and outcomes.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Neonatal death, neonatal white matter injury, cerebral palsy, mental processing composite (MPC) of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children test and behavioural difficulties at 5 years.

RESULTS

In the 28- to 32-week GA subgroup, there was a significant association between ACS and a decreased risk of both neonatal death (OR = 0.61 [0.41-0.91]) and white matter injury (OR = 0.60 [0.46-0.79]) but only a nonsignificant trend for improved 5-year outcome (cerebral palsy, MPC < 70). In the 24- to 27-week GA subgroup, ACS was associated with a significant decrease risk of neonatal death (OR = 0.43 [0.27-0.68]) but there was only a trend for a lower risk of white matter injury and no beneficial impact on outcome at 5 years. Limiting the analysis to only those who received complete courses of ACS did not modify the results.

CONCLUSION

The study shows that ACS therapy greatly increases the survival of very preterm infants, including the most immature, but there is little evidence that ACS affects long-term neurodevelopmental and behavioural outcome in 28- to 32-week survivors, and none in <28-week survivors.

Does smoking in pregnancy modify the impact of antenatal steroids on neonatal respiratory distress syndrome? Results of the Epipage study

OBJECTIVES

To assess the relation between cigarette smoking during pregnancy and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in very preterm birth, and to analyse the differential effect of antenatal steroids on RDS among smokers and non-smokers.

DESIGN

A population based cohort study (the French Epipage study).

SETTING

Regionally defined births in France.

METHODS

A total of 858 very preterm liveborn singletons (27-32 completed weeks of gestation) of the French Epipage study were included in this analysis. The odds ratio for RDS in relation to smoking in pregnancy was estimated using a logistic regression to control for gestational age. The odds ratio for RDS in relation to antenatal steroids was estimated taking into account an interaction between antenatal steroids and cigarette smoking, using multiple logistic regression to control for gestational age, birthweight ratio, main causes of preterm birth, mode of delivery, and sex.

RESULTS

The odds ratio for RDS in relation to smoking in pregnancy adjusted for gestational age (aOR) was 0.59 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.44 to 0.79). The aOR for RDS in relation to antenatal steroids was 0.31 (95% CI 0.19 to 0.49) in babies born to non-smokers and 0.63 (95% CI 0.38 to 1.05) in those born to smokers; the difference was significant (p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Cigarette smoking during pregnancy is associated with a decrease in the risk of RDS in very preterm babies. Although antenatal steroids reduce the risk of RDS in babies born to both smokers and non-smokers, the reduction is smaller in those born to smokers.

Les troubles du développement des enfants grands prématurés mesurés à l’âge scolaire

Advances in perinatal care have lead to the survival of an increasing number of children born very premature. The purpose of this review is to discuss findings in the literature regarding long term developmental outcome of infants born prematurely especially for studies with children at least 5 years old, born in the 80's or after, in a context of care with increased use of antenatal corticoids, in utero transfer, and surfactant therapy. Developmental sequelae, which are seen in children older than those presenting severe deficiencies, concerns a greater number of very premature children. They have poorer outcomes than term children or normal birth weight controls for cognitive-neuropsychological skills, school performances and behavior. Long term follow up of these children shows that consequences are still present for adolescents or young adults. There is a gradient of developmental sequelae in children that is inversely related to decreasing gestational age or birth weight. Developmental sequelae are related to neonatal medical complications and social risks factors. Research should be conducted in order to better understand etiology and neuropathological basis of sequelae, and the long term developmental implication of being born very premature and the type of care or intervention which could improve their development. An early and regular follow up by a team specialized in child development should be proposed in order to detect developmental sequelae and propose early intervention.

Survival of very preterm infants: Epipage, a population based cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the outcome for all infants born before 33 weeks gestation until discharge from hospital.

DESIGN

A prospective observational population based study.

SETTING

Nine regions of France in 1997.

PATIENTS

All births or late terminations of pregnancy for fetal or maternal reasons between 22 and 32 weeks gestation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Life status: stillbirth, live birth, death in delivery room, death in intensive care, decision to limit intensive care, survival to discharge.

RESULTS

A total of 722 late terminations, 772 stillbirths, and 2901 live births were recorded. The incidence of very preterm births was 1.3 per 100 live births and stillbirths. The survival rate for births between 22 and 32 weeks was 67% of all births (including stillbirths), 85% of live births, and 89% of infants admitted to neonatal intensive care units. Survival increased with gestational age: 31% of all infants born alive at 24 weeks survived to discharge, 78% at 28 weeks, and 97% at 32 weeks. Survival among live births was lower for small for gestational age infants, multiple births, and boys. Overall, 50% of deaths after birth followed decisions to withhold or withdraw intensive care: 66% of deaths in the delivery room, decreasing with increasing gestational age; 44% of deaths in the neonatal intensive care unit, with little variation with gestational age.

CONCLUSION

Among very preterm babies, chances of survival varies greatly according to the length of gestation. At all gestational ages, a large proportion of deaths are associated with a decision to limit intensive care.

[Use of medical services by very preterm children during the first year of life in the Epipage cohort]

OBJECTIVES

To compare the use of health and social services between children born before 33 weeks (very preterm), children born at 33 or 34 weeks (moderately preterm) and children born at 39 or 40 weeks (full term).

POPULATION AND METHODS

All very preterm children born in 1997 in nine French regions and a representative sample of the two other groups were followed up since birth. Data on the use of services between discharge from initial neonatal hospitalisation and the 9 months after birth were obtained by mail questionnaire filled in by parents.

RESULTS

38.2% of very preterm children, 24.3% of moderately preterm children and 10.3% of full term children were admitted to hospital at least once. Respiratory tract disorder was the main reason for rehospitalisation of very preterm children. The total number of visits, visits to specialists, and chest therapy were more frequent among very preterm children than among the two other groups.

CONCLUSION

Medical care of very preterm children is intensive after discharge from initial neonatal hospitalisation. Need of services are also substantial for moderately preterm children.

[Prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke and cognitive development: epidemiology studies]

Studies concerning smoking during pregnancy and cognitive development of the child were reviewed. Some studies tend to support the existence of an association between smoking during pregnancy and a less optimal cognitive development of the child. The meaning of these relationships remains obscure, since it cannot be assumed that they are due to maternal cigarette smoking: they could be due to different characteristics of smokers or non-smokers. In the older studies, potential confounding factors were not adequately taken into account and in some recent studies, the observed difference was no longer significant after taking into account the maternal educational level and the family stimulation of the child. Behavior problems are associated with smoking during pregnancy in nearly all studies but the same problem of confounding factors remains. It is thus difficult to conclude presently from these studies if there is a causal relationship between prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke and cognitive development.

Influence of severity of congenital hypothyroidism and adequacy of treatment on school achievement in young adolescents: a population-based cohort study

AIM

To evaluate whether precociously treated subjects with congenital hypothyroidism (CH) are at risk of poor school performance in early adolescence, and to investigate which factors affect their school achievement.

METHODS

All children treated early for congenital hypothyroidism and born in France during the first 7 y (1979-1985) of the national screening program for congenital hypothyroidism were selected for the study. School performance during childhood, assessed according to age at entry into the first grade of secondary school, was evaluated as normal (usually 11 y of age) vs late entry (> or = 12 y). The national register of children with congenital hypothyroidism enabled a comparison to be made with data from the national population for the same school years.

RESULTS

School achievement was similar among the 682 patients with CH and in the national population. After an adjustment for the sex and socioprofessional category of the parents, the severity of CH as assessed by the type (athyreosis. the most severe vs other types), the initial low serum T4 levels (< or = 53 nmol/L vs >53 nmol/L), and the profound bone maturation delay (absence vs presence of the two knee epiphyseal ossification centres at diagnosis), initially low L-thyroxine dosage (below vs > or = 7 microg/kg/day), the absence of near normalization of thyroid hormone levels after 15 d of treatment and poor adequacy of treatment throughout childhood were associated with an increased risk of school delay. School achievement was unaffected by the age at start of treatment (mean age = 22.8 +/- 6.8 d). In a multivariate logistic regression analysis, recurrent episodes of insufficiently suppressed TSH levels (> or = 15 mUi/L at least four times during follow-up from the age of 6 mo onwards) were the most important variable associated with school delay.

CONCLUSION

Careful follow-up of the adequacy of treatment is required throughout childhood, to reduce the risk of school delay.

[Epipage study: mortality of very premature infants and state of progress at follow up]

OBJECTIVE

To study perinatal and neonatal mortality of very preterm infants and to assess the association with birth weight and multiple births.

METHODS

Infants enrolled in the Epipage study born between 22 and 32 weeks gestational age in 9 French regions in 1997 were included in this study. The main outcome measure was stillbirth and death before discharge from hospital.

RESULTS

During the study period, 4397 births and therapeutic abortions meeting the inclusion criteria were recorded (including 16% therapeutic abortions and 18% stillbirths). Survival rate for babies born between 22 and 32 weeks was 67% of all births (stillborn + liveborn) and 85% among livebirths. Survival rose with increasing gestational age: survival (livebirths) was 50% at 25 weeks gestation, 78% at 28 weeks and 97% at 32 weeks. Survival was lower for infants with a birthweight below the 10th percentile and for multiple-pregnancy infants. The different stages of the follow-up planned up to 5 years are presented together with the response rate to the postal follow-up questionnaire.

CONCLUSION

This cohort provides mortality data on very premature infants during pregnancy, at birth, during hospitalization before discharge. Survival of liveborn infants was stratified by gestational age and was consistent with other geographically based studies of very preterm infants born in the 1990s.

School difficulties in 20-year-olds who were born small for gestational age at term in a regional cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relation between school difficulties and being born small for gestational age (SGA) at full term in adolescents and young adults.

METHODS

A total of 236 full-term singletons who were born SGA (birth weight and/or length below the third percentile) from 1971 through 1978 and 281 full-term singletons who were born appropriate for gestational age (AGA; between the 25th and 75th percentiles) from the maternity registry of Haguenau, France. Participants were evaluated at a mean age of 20.6 (+/-2.1) years. The outcomes measured were late entry into secondary school (normal age: 11 years) and failure to take or pass the baccalaureate examination at the end of secondary school (normal age: 18 years).

RESULTS

Late entry into secondary school was more frequent for the SGA than the AGA children (odds ratio: 2.3) after adjustment for maternal age and educational level, parental socioeconomic status, family size, and gender. A significantly higher proportion of term SGA adolescents failed to take or pass the baccalaureate examination than AGA adolescents (odds ratio: 1.6). SGA participants with a smaller head circumference entered secondary school late more often than SGA participants with a larger head circumference, but the association was not significant after adjustment.

CONCLUSION

Being born SGA at term is associated with poorer school performance at 12 and 18 years. Fetal adaptation to conditions that retard growth during gestation may not be successful in maintaining brain development.

Prenatal alcohol exposure and signs of minor neurological dysfunction at preschool age

High levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy affect the development of the baby's central nervous system. Pregnant women were interviewed about their alcohol consumption during pregnancy, when they first visited the maternity hospital in Roubaix, France. Of the 698 women interviewed, 156 of their children were investigated at the age of 4 1/2 years with a standardised examination to assess the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on neurological status. Two scores were calculated: a posture score, which measured items while the child was standing; and a minor neurological signs score. The posture score was not related to prenatal alcohol exposure. Consumption of 21 drinks/week (3 drinks/day) or more during pregnancy was significantly associated with a higher number of minor neurological signs, after controlling for relevant covariables. Although prenatal alcohol exposure was related to a lower General Cognitive Index (GCI), minor neurological signs were associated with prenatal alcohol exposure after controlling for GCI.

[Infant temperament at 6-9 months old: validation of the French version of the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire and factors associated with measurement]

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to assess the validity of the French version of the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ), which was developed by Bates in 1979 to investigate the parental perceptions of infant temperament at 6 months of age.

METHODS

The French version was established after translation/back-translation, and tested on a sample of 794 mothers, who gave birth in 1995 in four French Departments and who returned the questionnaire which was mailed 6 months after the birth.

RESULTS

The non-response rate of each item was very low (< 2%). Factor analysis resulted in the same four factors as in the American data: fussy/difficult, unadaptable, unpredictable, dull. However, some of the items did not have similar factor loadings. Thus new factor scores were defined for the French version of the ICQ. Internal consistency, as measured by the Cronbach coefficient, was satisfactory (> 0.7) for the factors fussy/difficult and unadaptable. It was lower, but acceptable (> 0.6) for the two other factors. The infant's temperament was not related to birth parameters. In contrast, some factor scores were significantly associated with parity, mother's education, as well as her health and the infant's health after leaving the maternity ward.

CONCLUSIONS

The French version of the ICQ is well accepted and has a good validity. This scale provides a useful instrument for research, especially for epidemiological studies on infant health and development, as well as their determinants.

Participation in a mail survey: role of repeated mailings and characteristics of nonrespondents among recent mothers

This study analysed the characteristics of respondent and nonrespondent mothers at each stage of a survey procedure, from a initial questionnaire to a reminder letter and two repeated mailings. Of 938 mothers of liveborn children who, while maternity inpatients, received a questionnaire and information about a mail survey to follow 2 months later, 828 completed and returned the initial questionnaire, 708 agreed to participate in the mail survey and were sent the mail questionnaire, and 612 finally completed and returned the questionnaire at 2 months. There were differences between respondents and non-respondents for socio-demographic factors at each stage of the process. The final response rate to the mail questionnaire was higher among mothers who were younger, were breast feeding, and had more education, an occupation and fewer children. The characteristics of late respondents were intermediate between those of early to middle respondents and nonrespondents for age, educational level, breast feeding and occupation. Maternal and infant health varied only slightly according to response status. Repeated mailings increased response and diminished selection. A mail questionnaire after contact in a maternity ward is a cost-effective means of gathering data about a large sample of recent mothers and their children.

Prenatal alcohol exposure and development at preschool age: main results of a French study

Very high levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy are harmful for the central nervous system of the child and affect morphogenesis and growth. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of moderate prenatal alcohol exposure on development at preschool age in a longitudinal study. Pregnant women were interviewed on their alcohol consumption during pregnancy at their first visit to the maternity hospital of Roubaix, France. The development of their 160 children was assessed at the age of 4 1/2. Multiple regression analyses indicated that consumption of 1.5 oz of absolute alcohol (approximately 3 drinks) or more during pregnancy was significantly related to a decrease of 7 points on the general cognitive index of the McCarthy scales, after controlling for confounders. This level of consumption was also related to a higher score on minor neurological anomalies, a lower height of the child, and a higher score on facial features. This level of 1.5 oz of absolute alcohol/day should not be interpreted as a biological threshold, because the study does not allow conclusions to be drawn regarding the effects of lower levels of alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can affect the development of the child, at levels well below those associated with fetal alcohol syndrome.

Moderate prenatal alcohol exposure and psychomotor development at preschool age

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the effect of moderate prenatal alcohol exposure on psychomotor development of preschool-age children in a longitudinal study.

METHODS

Pregnant women were interviewed about their alcohol consumption at their first visit to the maternity hospital in Roubaix, France. Alcohol consumption before pregnancy and during the first trimester was assessed with a structured questionnaire. The psychomotor development of 155 children of these women was assessed with the McCarthy scales of children's abilities when the children were about 4 1/2 years old.

RESULTS

Consumption of 1.5 oz of absolute alcohol (approximately three drinks) or more per day during pregnancy was significantly related to a decrease of 7 points in the mean score on the general cognitive index of the McCarthy scales, after gender, birth order, maternal education, score for family stimulation, family status, maternal employment, child's age at examination, and examiner were controlled for.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that moderate to heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy, at levels well below those associated with fetal alcohol syndrome, has effects on children's psychomotor development.

Effects of birth weight of alcohol and caffeine consumption during pregnancy

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of alcohol and caffeine consumption on birth weight and the possible interaction of these substances with smoking. The sample included 628 women who were interviewed at their first visit to the maternity hospital of Roubaix, France, in 1985-1986. A significant reduction in birth weight was found to be associated with an average daily alcohol consumption of three drinks or more after gestational age, infant sex, maternal age, parity, weight, and height, and cigarette smoking had been controlled for. There was no interaction between smoking and alcohol consumption on birth weight, but a significant relation between alcohol consumption and birth weight was observed among nonsmokers as well as heavy smokers. The relation observed between caffeine and birth weight disappeared after adjustment for smoking. Our results indicate that alcohol reduces birth weight, but do not support the hypothesis of an interaction between smoking and alcohol consumption.

Factors correlated with homosexually acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection in the era of "safer sex". Was the prevention message clear and well understood? Alain Brugeat Physician Group

A cross-sectional survey was conducted between November 1986 and January 1988 among 246 homosexual/bisexual patients by consulting physicians promoting human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection prevention, to determine factors correlated with HIV infection a few years after the launch of safer sex recommendations. After adjustment for numbers of sexual partners and frequency of unprotected receptive anal intercourse, seropositive subjects, compared to seronegative ones, had significantly higher frequencies of: (1) receptive anal intercourse using condoms and extraneous lubricants, (2) anorectal douching before or after intercourse, (3) past history of syphilis, and (4) nitrite inhalations. The first three factors remained significant after multivariate analysis. Eighty-three percent of the subjects practicing receptive anal intercourse with condoms plus lubricants used inappropriate lubricants. Some factors identified in our study are well established risk factors for homosexually acquired HIV infection, suggesting that safer sex recommendations still are not followed by all. Our results also elicit additional factors that independently increase the risk. Two of them, extraneous lubrication of the condom for anal receptive intercourse and anorectal douching, may result from a misunderstood notion of "safer sex," or from practices thought by mistake to protect against HIV.

Folate status during pregnancy: relationship with alcohol consumption, other maternal risk factors and pregnancy outcome

This study was designed to identify the factors affecting folate status in pregnant women and to explore the relationship between folate status and alcohol consumption during pregnancy. For this purpose, 347 French women were recruited during 1985-1986 on their first visit to the antenatal clinic at Roubaix Hospital (northern France). Alcohol consumption was ascertained by a standardized interview. Folate status assessment was available for 246 pregnant women who were not given folate supplementation. Average folate levels during pregnancy were lower among young women and smokers. Serum folate values diminished with the educational level, and red cell folate values increased with high parity. Unexpectedly, high red cell folate values were strongly related with high alcohol consumption after adjustment for the maternal risk factors associated with alcohol consumption and folate status. This was probably because in the Roubaix region where the study was conducted women consume mostly beer, which contains folates. Pregnancy outcome was not related to folate levels; birthweight was negatively associated with alcohol consumption during the first trimester of pregnancy.

Alcohol and the fetus

The teratogenic effects of alcohol have been recognized in the fetal alcohol syndrome. The syndrome is associated with very high levels of maternal consumption. Studies of the relation between much lower levels of consumption and pregnancy outcome seem to indicate consistently lower birthweight among children born to mothers drinking more than 140 g absolute alcohol per week, or about two drinks a day.