Introduction, Transmission Dynamics, and Fate of Early Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Lineages in Santa Clara County, California

We combined viral genome sequencing with contact tracing to investigate introduction and evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 lineages in Santa Clara County, California, from 27 January to 21 March 2020. From 558 persons with coronavirus disease 2019, 101 genomes from 143 available clinical samples comprised 17 lineages, including SCC1 (n = 41), WA1 (n = 9; including the first 2 reported deaths in the United States, with postmortem diagnosis), D614G (n = 4), ancestral Wuhan Hu-1 (n = 21), and 13 others (n = 26). Public health intervention may have curtailed the persistence of lineages that appeared transiently during February and March. By August, only D614G lineages introduced after 21 March were circulating in Santa Clara County.

Associations of Early COVID-19 Cases in San Francisco With Domestic and International Travel

In early-to-mid March 2020, 20 of 46 (43%) COVID-19 cases at a tertiary care hospital in San Francisco, California were travel related. Cases were significantly associated with travel to either Europe (odds ratio, 6.1) or New York (odds ratio, 32.9). Viral genomes recovered from 9 of 12 (75%) cases co-clustered with lineages circulating in Europe.

Transductomics: sequencing-based detection and analysis of transduced DNA in pure cultures and microbial communities

BACKGROUND

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) plays a central role in microbial evolution. Our understanding of the mechanisms, frequency, and taxonomic range of HGT in polymicrobial environments is limited, as we currently rely on historical HGT events inferred from genome sequencing and studies involving cultured microorganisms. We lack approaches to observe ongoing HGT in microbial communities.

RESULTS

To address this knowledge gap, we developed a DNA sequencing-based "transductomics" approach that detects and characterizes microbial DNA transferred via transduction. We validated our approach using model systems representing a range of transduction modes and show that we can detect numerous classes of transducing DNA. Additionally, we show that we can use this methodology to obtain insights into DNA transduction among all major taxonomic groups of the intestinal microbiome.

CONCLUSIONS

The transductomics approach that we present here allows for the detection and characterization of genes that are potentially transferred between microbes in complex microbial communities at the time of measurement and thus provides insights into real-time ongoing horizontal gene transfer. This work extends the genomic toolkit for the broader study of mobile DNA within microbial communities and could be used to understand how phenotypes spread within microbiomes. Video Abstract.

Physiology of Highly Radioresistant Escherichia coli After Experimental Evolution for 100 Cycles of Selection

Ionizing radiation (IR) is lethal to most organisms at high doses, damaging every cellular macromolecule via induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Utilizing experimental evolution and continuing previous work, we have generated the most IR-resistant Escherichia coli populations developed to date. After 100 cycles of selection, the dose required to kill 99% the four replicate populations (IR9-100, IR10-100, IR11-100, and IR12-100) has increased from 750 Gy to approximately 3,000 Gy. Fitness trade-offs, specialization, and clonal interference are evident. Long-lived competing sub-populations are present in three of the four lineages. In IR9, one lineage accumulates the heme precursor, porphyrin, leading to generation of yellow-brown colonies. Major genomic alterations are present. IR9 and IR10 exhibit major deletions and/or duplications proximal to the chromosome replication terminus. Contributions to IR resistance have expanded beyond the alterations in DNA repair systems documented previously. Variants of proteins involved in ATP synthesis (AtpA), iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis (SufD) and cadaverine synthesis (CadA) each contribute to IR resistance in IR9-100. Major genomic and physiological changes are emerging. An isolate from IR10 exhibits protein protection from ROS similar to the extremely radiation resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, without evident changes in cellular metal homeostasis. Selection is continuing with no limit to IR resistance in evidence as our E. coli populations approach levels of IR resistance typical of D. radiodurans.

Genomic surveillance reveals multiple introductions of SARS-CoV-2 into Northern California

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread globally, with >365,000 cases in California as of 17 July 2020. We investigated the genomic epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in Northern California from late January to mid-March 2020, using samples from 36 patients spanning nine counties and the Grand Princess cruise ship. Phylogenetic analyses revealed the cryptic introduction of at least seven different SARS-CoV-2 lineages into California, including epidemic WA1 strains associated with Washington state, with lack of a predominant lineage and limited transmission among communities. Lineages associated with outbreak clusters in two counties were defined by a single base substitution in the viral genome. These findings support contact tracing, social distancing, and travel restrictions to contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in California and other states.

Murine colitis reveals a disease-associated bacteriophage community

The dysregulation of intestinal microbial communities is associated with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Studies aimed at understanding the contribution of the microbiota to inflammatory diseases have primarily focused on bacteria, yet the intestine harbors a viral component dominated by prokaryotic viruses known as bacteriophages (phages). Phage numbers are elevated at the intestinal mucosal surface and phages increase in abundance during IBD, suggesting that phages play an unidentified role in IBD. We used a sequence independent approach for the selection of viral contigs and then applied quantitative metagenomics to study intestinal phages in a mouse model of colitis. We discovered that during colitis the intestinal phage population is altered and transitions from an ordered state to a stochastic dysbiosis. We identified phages specific to pathobiotic hosts associated with intestinal disease, whose abundances are significantly altered during colitis. Additionally, phage populations in healthy and diseased mice overlapped with phages from healthy humans and humans with IBD. Our findings indicate that intestinal phage communities are altered during inflammatory disease establishing a platform for investigating phage involvement in IBD.

BBMerge - Accurate paired shotgun read merging via overlap

Merging paired-end shotgun reads generated on high-throughput sequencing platforms can substantially improve various subsequent bioinformatics processes, including genome assembly, binning, mapping, annotation, and clustering for taxonomic analysis. With the inexorable growth of sequence data volume and CPU core counts, the speed and scalability of read-processing tools becomes ever-more important. The accuracy of shotgun read merging is crucial as well, as errors introduced by incorrect merging percolate through to reduce the quality of downstream analysis. Thus, we designed a new tool to maximize accuracy and minimize processing time, allowing the use of read merging on larger datasets, and in analyses highly sensitive to errors. We present BBMerge, a new merging tool for paired-end shotgun sequence data. We benchmark BBMerge by comparison with eight other widely used merging tools, assessing speed, accuracy and scalability. Evaluations of both synthetic and real-world datasets demonstrate that BBMerge produces merged shotgun reads with greater accuracy and at higher speed than any existing merging tool examined. BBMerge also provides the ability to merge non-overlapping shotgun read pairs by using k-mer frequency information to assemble the unsequenced gap between reads, achieving a significantly higher merge rate while maintaining or increasing accuracy.

Genome-wide selective sweeps and gene-specific sweeps in natural bacterial populations

Multiple models describe the formation and evolution of distinct microbial phylogenetic groups. These evolutionary models make different predictions regarding how adaptive alleles spread through populations and how genetic diversity is maintained. Processes predicted by competing evolutionary models, for example, genome-wide selective sweeps vs gene-specific sweeps, could be captured in natural populations using time-series metagenomics if the approach were applied over a sufficiently long time frame. Direct observations of either process would help resolve how distinct microbial groups evolve. Here, from a 9-year metagenomic study of a freshwater lake (2005-2013), we explore changes in single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequencies and patterns of gene gain and loss in 30 bacterial populations. SNP analyses revealed substantial genetic heterogeneity within these populations, although the degree of heterogeneity varied by >1000-fold among populations. SNP allele frequencies also changed dramatically over time within some populations. Interestingly, nearly all SNP variants were slowly purged over several years from one population of green sulfur bacteria, while at the same time multiple genes either swept through or were lost from this population. These patterns were consistent with a genome-wide selective sweep in progress, a process predicted by the 'ecotype model' of speciation but not previously observed in nature. In contrast, other populations contained large, SNP-free genomic regions that appear to have swept independently through the populations prior to the study without purging diversity elsewhere in the genome. Evidence for both genome-wide and gene-specific sweeps suggests that different models of bacterial speciation may apply to different populations coexisting in the same environment.

High-resolution phylogenetic microbial community profiling

Over the past decade, high-throughput short-read 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing has eclipsed clone-dependent long-read Sanger sequencing for microbial community profiling. The transition to new technologies has provided more quantitative information at the expense of taxonomic resolution with implications for inferring metabolic traits in various ecosystems. We applied single-molecule real-time sequencing for microbial community profiling, generating full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences at high throughput, which we propose to name PhyloTags. We benchmarked and validated this approach using a defined microbial community. When further applied to samples from the water column of meromictic Sakinaw Lake, we show that while community structures at the phylum level are comparable between PhyloTags and Illumina V4 16S rRNA gene sequences (iTags), variance increases with community complexity at greater water depths. PhyloTags moreover allowed less ambiguous classification. Last, a platform-independent comparison of PhyloTags and in silico generated partial 16S rRNA gene sequences demonstrated significant differences in community structure and phylogenetic resolution across multiple taxonomic levels, including a severe underestimation in the abundance of specific microbial genera involved in nitrogen and methane cycling across the Lake's water column. Thus, PhyloTags provide a reliable adjunct or alternative to cost-effective iTags, enabling more accurate phylogenetic resolution of microbial communities and predictions on their metabolic potential.

Immunotherapy of a plasmacytoma with attenuated salmonella

An attenuated strain of Salmonella typhimurium, SL3235, developed as a prototypic typhoid vaccine, is shown to retard growth of a murine plasmacytoma, TEPC-183, and to prolong survival of tumor-bearing mice. Live salmonella, but not acetone-killed organisms, had antitumor activity. The immunotherapeutic effect was demonstrable when the tumor was injected intralesionally or intraperitoneally. Increased survival, longer mean time to death, and retardation of tumor growth were found when the salmonella were given intralesionally as late as the sixth day post-tumor injection. Timing of salmonella inoculation, as well as the salmonella dose, had an effect on treatment efficacy. Injection of salmonella intraperitoneally exerted a strong antitumor effect when given as late as the third day post-tumor inoculation. The highest dose (2 x 10(6)) of salmonella was less effective than doses 10- or 100-fold lower. TEPC-183 plasmacytoma is rapidly growing and highly immunosuppressive, so the ability of the salmonella to exert therapeutic activity against it is a measure of the potency of the vaccine. These observations are of interest, as they show that a genetically engineered, avirulent strain of Salmonella has immunotherapeutic properties similar to those of BCG and other biological response modifiers, and might have clinical potential as an antitumor agent.

The effect of a bacterial vaccine on tumors and the immune response of ICR/Ha mice

This study examined the effect of mixed bacterial vaccine (MBV), a biological response modifier prepared from Streptococcus pyogenes and Serratia marcescens, on the immune system of mice and on the regression of a transplantable mouse tumor sarcoma 37. The study examined MBV's biological properties and analyzed its chemical composition. The chemical composition varied with the growth media. A typical centrifuged, dialyzed supernate of the serum-containing preparation was found to consist mainly of protein and minimal amounts of carbohydrate and endotoxin, while MBV made with synthetic medium contained similar amounts of all three. MBV was nontoxic for mice, which gained weight following the injection of 0.5-1.0 ml of MBV. MBV caused regression of 20-100% of well-established mouse tumors without appreciable toxicity. MBV also had a striking effect on the immune response of mice to sheep red blood cells. When administered simultaneously with antigen injection, MBV increased the number of antibody-secreting splenocytes measured by the plaque-forming assay threefold. Serum antibody levels also increased two- to threefold. MBV did not enhance the immune response to pneumococcal polysaccharide type III, a B-cell-dependent response. However, the in vivo administration of MBV increased the in vitro response to MBV and the B-cell mitogen lipopolysaccharide. MBV compares favorably with other biological response modifiers because of its enhancing effect on the immune response and its oncolytic properties at nontoxic levels.

Effect of the mixed bacterial vaccine on the immune response of patients with non-small cell lung cancer and refractory malignancies

Since 1984, 13 patients were entered into our study and 12 patients have completed one or more cycles of treatment with mixed bacterial vaccine (MBV), a natural biologic response modifier derived from Streptococcus pyogenes and Serratia marcescens. Eight patients with refractory malignancy were treated with MBV only (0.1 ml intravenously [IV]) twice weekly for 3-16 weeks (colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, chronic lymphatic leukemia, hepatoma [two patients], sarcoma [three patients]). Four patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer were treated with MBV in combination with low-dose cyclophosphamide, day 1; cisplatin, day 15; and MBV, 0.1 ml IV, days 5, 7, and 9. Two patients in this study received cyclophosphamide and cisplatin alone. The cycle was repeated every 28 days. Plasma interferon levels, interleukin-2 production by peripheral lymphocytes, and lymphocyte subpopulations were monitored. Interferon levels and interleukin-2 production showed increased or sustained values in general. In some patients, B-cells and helper T-cell populations increased, whereas T-suppressor cell numbers declined. With one exception, side effects were mild and consisted of fever greater than 37.8 degrees C (nine of 13), chills (11 of 13), increased respiratory rate (nine of 13), minor changes in blood pressure (seven of 13), and nausea (three of 13). One patient with non-small cell lung cancer had a partial response. Two patients with non-small cell lung cancer and one patient with refractory malignancy had stable disease and performance status at the end of 8 weeks of treatment; one patient with refractory malignancy was stable at the end of 4 weeks of treatment. In this pilot study, cancer patients treated with MBV showed objective evidence of immune stimulation with acceptable toxicity.

Enzootic mycoplasmal mastitis in a large dairy during an eight-year period

During an 8-year period, a study was conducted in a large dairy in the Sacramento Valley of California, to define factors associated with the introduction and spread of mycoplasmal mastitis. To identify cows in which mycoplasmal infection appeared in 22 of 25 (88%) periods of new infection, milk samples were collected weekly from freshened cows and from hospitalized cows with clinical mastitis. The disease first appeared in freshened cows in at least 36% of the periods of new cases of mycoplasmal mastitis, which indicated that special attention must be paid to freshening cows in an attempt to control spread of the disease. New cases of mycoplasmal mastitis were recorded more often in January through April than during the rest of the year. Rates of mastitis infection caused by other pathogens (contagious and environmental organisms) increased during months when new cases of mycoplasmal mastitis were recorded. Sanitation on the farm during udder infusion and milking was a major factor in controlling the introduction and spread of mycoplasmal mastitis.