Salivary proteomic profile of young healthy subjects

Background: The incidence of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) has been rapidly ramped up worldwide. Hence, there is an urgent need to non-invasively detect NCDs possibly by exploiting saliva as a 'liquid biopsy' to identify biomarkers of the health status. Since, the absence of standardized procedures of collection/analysis and the lack of normal ranges makes the use of saliva still tricky, our purpose was to outline a salivary proteomic profile which features healthy individuals. Methods: We collected saliva samples from 19 young blood donors as reference population and the proteomic profile was investigated through mass-spectrometry. Results: We identified 1,004 proteins of whose 243 proteins were shared by all subjects. By applying a data clustering approach, we found a set of six most representative proteins across all subjects including Coronin-1A, F-actin-capping protein subunit alpha, Immunoglobulin J chain, Prosaposin, 78 kDa glucose-regulated protein and Heat shock 70 kDa protein 1A and 1B. Conclusion: All of these proteins are involved in immune system activation, cellular stress responses, proliferation, and invasion thus suggesting their use as biomarkers in patients with NCDs.

Plasma microglial-derived extracellular vesicles are increased in frail patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment and exert a neurotoxic effect

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are mediators of cellular communication that can be released by almost all cell types in both physiological and pathological conditions and are present in most biological fluids. Such characteristics make them attractive in the research of biomarkers for age-related pathological conditions. Based on this, the aim of the present study was to examine the changes in EV concentration and size in the context of frailty, a geriatric syndrome associated with a progressive physical and cognitive decline. Specifically, total EVs and neural and microglial-derived EVs (NDVs and MDVs respectively) were investigated in plasma of frail and non-frail controls (CTRL), mild cognitive impairment (MCI) subjects, and in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Results provided evidence that AD patients displayed diminished NDV concentration (3.61 × 10⁹ ± 1.92 × 10⁹ vs 7.16 × 10⁹ ± 4.3 × 10⁹ particles/ml) and showed high diagnostic performance. They are able to discriminate between AD and CTRL with an area under the curve of 0.80, a sensitivity of 78.95% and a specificity of 85.7%, considering the cut-off of 5.27 × 10⁹ particles/ml. Importantly, we also found that MDV concentration was increased in frail MCI patients compared to CTRL (5.89 × 10⁹ ± 3.98 × 10⁹ vs 3.16 × 10⁹ ± 3.04 × 10⁹ particles/ml, P < 0.05) and showed high neurotoxic effect on neurons. MDV concentration discriminate frail MCI vs non-frail CTRL (AUC = 0.76) with a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 70%, considering the cut-off of 2.69 × 10⁹ particles/ml. Altogether, these results demonstrated an alteration in NDV and MDV release during cognitive decline, providing important insight into the role of EVs in frailty status.

Late-onset presentation and phenotypic heterogeneity of the rare R377W PSEN1 mutation

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Mutations in the PSEN1 gene are the most common cause of autosomal-dominant Alzheimer's disease and have been associated with the earliest disease onset. We describe an unusual presentation of the rare R377W PSEN1 mutation with a late age of onset, and we provide for the first time in vivo pathological evidence for this mutation.

METHODS

A 71-year-old female patient with progressive cognitive decline in the past 3 years and positive family history for dementia underwent neurological evaluation, neuropsychological testing, lumbar puncture, conventional brain imaging, amyloid-positron emission tomography (PET) and extensive genetic screening with a next-generation sequencing technique.

RESULTS

The diagnostic workup revealed mixed behavioural and amnestic disease features on neuropsychological tests, magnetic resonance imaging, and 18-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)-PET. Amyloid-PET detected amyloid deposition in the frontal areas, in the parietal lobes and the precunei. The genetic screening revealed the presence of the rare R377W mutation in the PSEN1 gene.

CONCLUSIONS

Extensive genetic screening is also advisable for late-onset presentations of Alzheimer's disease, especially in the presence of a positive family history or atypical clinical features.

Inflammatory expression profile in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with Nasu-Hakola Disease

Homozygous mutations in Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid cells 2 gene (TREM2) are one of the major causes of Nasu Hakola Disease (NHD). We analysed Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC) profile of 164 inflammatory factors in patients with NHD carrying the TREM2 Q33X mutation as compared with heterozygous and wild type individuals. Several molecules related to bone formation and angiogenesis were altered in NHD compared to non-carriers: Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP)-1 mRNA levels were significantly increased in PBMC (2.32 fold-increase; P = 0.01), as were Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGFB)3 levels (1.51 fold-increase; P = 0.02). Conversely, CXCL5 and Pro Platelet Basic Protein (PPBP) were strongly downregulated (-28.26, -9.85 fold-decrease over non-carriers, respectively, P = 0.01), as well as Platelet Factor 4 Variant 1 (PF4V1; -41.44, P = 0.03). Among other inflammatory factors evaluated, Interleukin (IL)-15 and Tumor Necrosis Factor Superfamily Member (TNFSF)4 mRNA levels were decreased in NHD as compared with non-carriers (-2.25 and -3.87 fold-decrease, P = 0.01 and 0.001, respectively). In heterozygous individuals, no significant differences were observed, apart from IL-15 mRNA levels, that were decreased at the same extent as NHD (-2.05 fold-decrease over non-carriers, P = 0.002). We identified a signature in PBMC from patients with NHD consisting of strongly decreased mRNA levels of CXCL5, PPBP, PF4V1, mildly decreased IL-15 and TNFSF4 and mildly increased BMP-1 and TGFB3.

Repetitive element hypermethylation in multiple sclerosis patients

Background

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex disorder of the central nervous system whose cause is currently unknown. Evidence is increasing that DNA methylation alterations could be involved in inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases and could contribute to MS pathogenesis. Repetitive elements Alu, LINE-1 and SAT-α, are widely known as estimators of global DNA methylation. We investigated Alu, LINE-1 and SAT-α methylation levels to evaluate their difference in a case–control setup and their role as a marker of disability.

Results

We obtained blood samples from 51 MS patients and 137 healthy volunteers matched by gender, age and smoking. Methylation was assessed using bisulfite-PCR-pyrosequencing. For all participants, medical history, physical and neurological examinations and screening laboratory tests were collected. All repetitive elements were hypermethylated in MS patients compared to healthy controls. A lower Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) score was associated with a lower levels of LINE-1 methylation for ‘EDSS = 1.0’ and ‘1.5 ≤ EDSS ≤ 2.5’ compared to an EDSS higher than 3, while Alu was associated with a higher level of methylation in these groups: ‘EDSS = 1.0’ and ‘1.5 ≤ EDSS ≤ 2.5’.

Conclusions

MS patients exhibit an hypermethylation in repetitive elements compared to healthy controls. Alu and LINE-1 were associated with degree of EDSS score. Forthcoming studies focusing on epigenetics and the multifactorial pathogenetic mechanism of MS could elucidate these links further.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12863-016-0395-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Inflammatory molecules in Frontotemporal Dementia: cerebrospinal fluid signature of progranulin mutation carriers

Mutations in progranulin gene (GRN) are one of the major causes of autosomal dominant Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration (FTLD). Progranulin displays anti-inflammatory properties and is likely a ligand of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) receptor 2, expressed on microglia. A few cytokines and chemokines are altered in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with sporadic FTLD, whereas no information is available in familial cases. We evaluated, through BioPlex, levels of 27 inflammatory molecules, including cytokines, chemokines, and related receptors, in CSF and matched serum, from FTLD patients carrying GRN mutations as compared with sporadic FTLD with no GRN mutations and controls. Mean±SD Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1) levels were significantly increased in CSF from sporadic FTLD patients as compared with controls (334.27±151.5 versus 159.7±49pg/ml; P⩽0.05). In GRN mutation carriers versus controls, CSF levels of MCP-1 were unchanged, whereas Interferon-γ-inducible protein-10 (IP-10) levels were increased (809.17±240.0 versus 436.61±202.5pg/ml; P=0.012). In the same group, TNFα and Interleukin (IL)-15 levels were decreased (3.18±1.41 versus 35.68±30.5pg/ml; P=0.013 and 9.34±5.54 versus 19.15±10.03pg/ml; P=0.023, respectively). Conversely, Regulated upon Activation, Normal T-cell Expressed, and Secreted (RANTES) levels were decreased in patients, with or without mutations, as compared with controls (4.63±3.30 and 2.58±20 versus 87.57±70pg/ml, respectively; P<0.05). Moreover, IP-10, IL-15 and RANTES CSF levels were not influenced by age, whereas MCP-1 levels increased with age (ρ=0.48; P=0.007). In conclusion, inflammatory de-regulation was observed in both sporadic FTLD and GRN carriers compared to controls, with a specific inflammatory profile for the latter group.

Conversion from clinically isolated syndrome to multiple sclerosis: A large multicentre study

Background and objective:

We explored which clinical and biochemical variables predict conversion from clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) to clinically definite multiple sclerosis (CDMS) in a large international cohort.

Methods:

Thirty-three centres provided serum samples from 1047 CIS cases with at least two years’ follow-up. Age, sex, clinical presentation, T2-hyperintense lesions, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) oligoclonal bands (OCBs), CSF IgG index, CSF cell count, serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25-OH-D), cotinine and IgG titres against Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA-1) and cytomegalovirus were tested for association with risk of CDMS.

Results:

At median follow-up of 4.31 years, 623 CIS cases converted to CDMS. Predictors of conversion in multivariable analyses were OCB (HR = 2.18, 95% CI = 1.71–2.77, p < 0.001), number of T2 lesions (two to nine lesions vs 0/1 lesions: HR = 1.97, 95% CI = 1.52–2.55, p < 0.001; >9 lesions vs 0/1 lesions: HR = 2.74, 95% CI = 2.04–3.68, p < 0.001) and age at CIS (HR per year inversely increase = 0.98, 95% CI = 0.98–0.99, p < 0.001). Lower 25-OH-D levels were associated with CDMS in univariable analysis, but this was attenuated in the multivariable model. OCB positivity was associated with higher EBNA-1 IgG titres.

Conclusions:

We validated MRI lesion load, OCB and age at CIS as the strongest independent predictors of conversion to CDMS in this multicentre setting. A role for vitamin D is suggested but requires further investigation.

Binge eating and fast cognitive worsening in an early-onset bvFTD patient carrying C9ORF72 expansion

An expanded hexanucleotide (GGGGCC) repeat in a non-coding promoter region of open reading frame 72 of chromosome 9 (C9ORF72) has been recently identified as a major cause of familial and sporadic frontotemporal lobar degeneration. We describe the clinical picture of a 64-year-old woman carrying the hexanucleotide repeat expansion, who developed a sporadic early-onset form of behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia characterized by the occurrence of uncommon behavioral manifestations such as binge eating disturbance and by a rapid worsening of cognitive abilities. Our report confirms previous studies asserting that C9ORF72 repeats may sustain heterogeneous clinical syndromes.

The NOS3 G894T (Glu298Asp) polymorphism is a risk factor for frontotemporal lobar degeneration

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS)1 C276T polymorphism was shown to increase the risk for frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). In the brain, both NOS1 and NOS3 (endothelial isoform) have been detected. The distribution of NOS3 G894T (Glu298Asp) and T-786C single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was analyzed in a population of 222 patients with FTLD compared with 218 age-matched controls to determine whether they could influence the susceptibility to develop the disease.

RESULTS

A statistically significant increased frequency of the NOS3 G894T SNP was observed in patients as compared with controls (40.0 vs. 31.4%, P = 0.011, OR: 1.65, CI: 1.13-2.42). Conversely, the distribution of the T-786C SNP was similar in patients and controls. No differences were observed stratifying according to gender.

DISCUSSION

The NOS3 G894T polymorphism likely acts as risk factor for sporadic FTLD, but studies in larger populations are needed to confirm these preliminary findings.

A trans-specific polymorphism in ZC3HAV1 is maintained by long-standing balancing selection and may confer susceptibility to multiple sclerosis

The human ZC3HAV1 gene encodes an antiviral protein. The longest splicing isoform of ZC3HAV1 contains a C-terminal PARP-like domain, which has evolved under positive selection in primates. We analyzed the evolutionary history of this same domain in humans and in Pan troglodytes. We identified two variants that segregate in both humans and chimpanzees; one of them (rs3735007) does not occur at a hypermutable site and accounts for a nonsynonymous substitution (Thr851Ile). The probability that the two trans-specific polymorphisms have occurred independently in the two lineages was estimated to be low (P = 0.0054), suggesting that at least one of them has arisen before speciation and has been maintained by selection. Population genetic analyses in humans indicated that the region surrounding the shared variants displays strong evidences of long-standing balancing selection. Selection signatures were also observed in a chimpanzee population sample. Inspection of 1000 Genomes data confirmed these findings but indicated that search for selection signatures using low-coverage whole-genome data may need masking of repetitive sequences. A case–control study of more than 1,000 individuals from mainland Italy indicated that the Thr851Ile SNP is significantly associated with susceptibility to multiple sclerosis (MS) (odds ratio [OR] = 1.47, 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 1.08–1.99, P = 0.011). This finding was confirmed in a larger sample of 4,416 Sardinians cases/controls (OR = 1.18, 95% CI: 1.037–1.344, P = 0.011), but not in a population from Belgium. We provide one of the first instances of human/chimpanzee trans-specific coding variant located outside the major histocompatibility complex region. The selective pressure is likely to be virus driven; in modern populations, this variant associates with susceptibility to MS, possibly via the interaction with environmental factors.

Response of renal parenchyma and interstitium of Rana snk. esculenta to environmental pollution

The mesonephroi of two groups of Rana esculenta collected from two rice fields near Pavia, one relatively unpolluted and one polluted, were morphologically and histochemically investigated. Light and electron microscopy analyses were performed and certain enzyme activities studied (succinic dehydrogenase, SDH, alkaline phosphatase, AlkPase, acid phosphatase, AcPase, catalase, CAT, and NOS-related nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphatase, NOS/NADPHd). The expression of the inducible NOS (iNOS) was evaluated through immunohistochemistry. In the renal parenchyma of the polluted group some structural modifications, mainly in the glomeruli and the proximal tubule epithelium, were observed. Peritubular inflammatory foci in most polluted samples were often found to be in combination with parasitic cysts. However, no necrotic processes were found in the renal parenchyma. Compared to controls, the histochemical studies on contaminated frogs evidenced an increase of the AcPase, NOS and CAT activities, and of the iNOS immunoexpression as well. All the results showed a good correspondence between the biomarkers responses and the environmental stress conditions. Overall, we can state that studying the sub-lethal effects of contamination in amphibians naturally exposed to toxicants has shown to be significant for the assessment of site-specific risk and potential hazards behind the phenomenon of progressive amphibian decline.

DCUN1D1 is a risk factor for frontotemporal lobar degeneration

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is considered as a proteinopathy; therefore, it is conceivable that genes encoding for factors involved in protein misfolding and/or degradation could play a role in its pathogenesis.

METHODS

An association study of defective in cullin neddylation 1 (DCN-1)-domain containing 1 (DCUN1D1), which is involved in protein degradation, was carried out in a population of 220 patients with FTLD as compared with 229 age-matched controls.

RESULTS

A statistically significant increased frequency of the GG genotype of the DCUN1D1 rs4859146 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was observed in patients compared with controls (6.9 vs. 1.7%, P = 0.011, adjusted OR: 4.39, 95% CI: 1.40-13.78). Stratifying according to the clinical syndrome, significant differences were observed between the behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia and controls (GG frequency: 6.3 vs. 1.7%, P = 0.02, OR:4.0, 95%, CI = 1.24-12.92), as well as between patients with progressive aphasia compared with controls (15.4 vs. 1.7%, P = 0.014, OR = 11.30, 95%, CI = 1.63-78.45), but not in patients with SD versus controls (8.3 vs. 1.7%, P = 0.18, OR = 5.24, 95% C.I. = 0.45-60.63). No significant differences in allelic and genotypic frequencies of the DCUN1D1 rs4859147 SNP were found.

CONCLUSIONS

The GG genotype of the DCUN1D1 rs4859147 SNP represents a risk factor for the development of FTLD, increasing the risk of about fourfold.

Preliminary evidence that VEGF genetic variability confers susceptibility to frontotemporal lobar degeneration

Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) recognizes a strong genetic background, with 30-50% of cases with a positive family history. Despite several efforts to identify monogenic causes of the disease, no clear-cut genetic risk factors for sporadic FTLD are yet known. Recently, increasing evidence points to a pivotal role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the neurodegenerative process, suggesting functions not confined to its originally described vascular effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of VEGF as a genetic determinant to FTLD susceptibility. We evaluated a cohort of 274 unrelated Italian patients, including 161 subjects with frontotemporal dementia (FTD), 56 with corticobasal degeneration syndrome, and 57 with progressive supranuclear palsy. Genotype and allele frequencies of four well-known polymorphisms located within the VEGF promoter (-2578C/A, -1190G/A, -1154G/A, and -634G/C) were calculated in patients and in 216 age-matched healthy subjects. Genetic analysis revealed the presence of several significant changes in terms of allele, genotype, and haplotype frequency distributions between patients and controls. Marked differences were observed when the FTD patient subgroup was compared with healthy subjects. Overall, these data provide evidence for the first time that VEGF gene variability represents a susceptibility factor for sporadic FTLD, at least in an Italian population. Future confirmatory studies are mandatory.

Novel exon 1 progranulin gene variant in Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Progranulin (PGRN) expression is increased in activated microglia in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain, suggesting a potential role in this pathology.

METHODS

A mutation scanning of exons and flanking regions of PGRN was carried out in 120 patients with sporadic frontotemporal lobar degeneration and 145 with sporadic AD.

RESULTS

Amongst variants not yet deposited, a novel allelic variant was identified in Exon 1 (g100169G > A). It leads to an amino acidic change (p.Gly35Arg) and was observed in a patient with late onset AD. In silico analysis predicted that this mutation is possibly damaging. A second variant (g.100165C > T), resulting in a silent mutation (pAsp33Asp), was found in a patient with semantic dementia and in another with early onset AD. Both variants were absent in 226 controls. In addition, two rare non-pathogenic variants lying very close to PGRN splice-site regions (IVS2 + 7-->G > A and IVS7 + 7-->G > A) were observed. Transcriptional analysis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients demonstrated they do not affect exon splicing.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel putative PGRN mutation leading to an amino acidic substitution was identified in a patient with clinical AD.

MDC/CCL22 intrathecal levels in patients with multiple sclerosis

MDC/CCL22 has been detected in the brain of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. MDC/CCL22 cerebrospinal fluid levels were evaluated in 56 patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and in 17 controls. No significant differences were found, even when stratifying patients according to the disease subtype. Stratifying by gender, significantly increased MDC/CCL22 levels were observed in female patients when compared with female controls and male patients (109.03 versus 98.54 and 99.37 pg/mL, P = 0.034 and 0.018, respectively). Therefore, MDC/CCL22 is likely to play a role in the development of MS in females only, possibly influencing the intracerebral recruitment of Th2 cells, which produce anti-inflammatory cytokines. Multiple Sclerosis 2008; 14: 547—549. http://msj.sagepub.com

A histochemical approach to the evaluation of the in vivo cytotoxicity of the nitrobutadienes (1E,3E)-1,4-bis(1-naphthyl)-2,3-dinitro-1,3-butadiene and methyl (2Z,4E)-2-methylsulfanyl-5-(1-naphthyl)-4-nitro-2,4-pentadienoate in mice liver and kidney

Two new molecules (1E,3E)-1,4-bis(1-naphthyl)-2,3-dinitro-1,3-butadiene (1-Naph-DNB) and (2Z,4E)-2-methylsulfanyl-5-(1-naphthyl)-4-nitro-2,4-pentadienoate (1-Naph-NMCB) in previous studies showed interesting antiproliferative activity in vitro. Furthermore, toxicological tests and histological analysis provided promising results, in particular for 1-Naph-NMCB that displayed lower toxic activity both in terms of lethal effect and tissue damage of the main organs. Finally, studies of the antitumour activity in vivo confirmed the efficacy of both molecules, though with some differences in tumour selectivity and levels of activity. In this investigation the activities of some specific enzymes, acid phosphatase (AcPase), alkaline phosphatase (AlkPase), catalase (Cat), succinic dehydrogenase (SDH), glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) and K+ p-nitrophenyl phosphatase (K+ pNPPase) were studied in the liver and kidney as histopathological biomarkers, to assess the effects of the two compounds in organs generally involved in the metabolism and excretion of different drugs. As oxidative stress may also develop as a consequence of the toxic effect of chemicals, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was evaluated by a histochemical method. The results indicated that some enzyme activities and ROS expression changed in a dose-related manner. Nevertheless, neither in the liver nor in the kidney were dramatic toxic effects evident. By contrast, the variations of some enzyme activities (AlkPase, AcPase, Cat, K+ pNPPase) were interpreted as possible defensive mechanisms for tolerating high dosage of the compounds.

Neuronal nitric oxide synthase C276T polymorphism increases the risk for frontotemporal lobar degeneration

The neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) is abundantly expressed in the brain and its transcripts have been found in the frontal cerebral cortex. Eighty-nine patients with different neurodegenerative tau-related disorders, including 71 patients with frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), 12 with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and 6 with corticobasal degeneration (CBD), were genotyped for the C276T single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in exon 29 of the nNOS gene and compared with 190 age-matched controls (CON). A significantly increased allelic frequency of the T allele was observed in patients compared with CON (40.4% vs. 29.7%, P = 0.014, OR: 1.94, CI: 1.15-3.27). Considering each disorder separately, significance was reached for FTLD only (39.4%, P = 0.0248 versus controls, OR: 1.96, CI: 1.11-3.47). However, the frequency of the T allele was elevated also in patients with PSP (45.8%) and CBD (41.7%). No differences were observed stratifying according to gender or apolipoprotein E status. The C276T SNP acts as risk factor for sporadic FTLD, possibly influencing NOS1 transcription. Studies in larger populations are needed to confirm its role in PSP and CBD.

CXCL10 haplotypes and multiple sclerosis: association and correlation with clinical course

CXCL10 (interferon-gamma-inducible protein-10) levels are increased in cerebrospinal fluid of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients with symptomatic attacks of inflammatory demyelination, supporting a role for this molecule in MS pathogenesis. Two hundred and twenty-six patients with MS and 235 controls were genotyped for G --> C and T --> C single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in exon 4 of CXCL10 gene. Haplotypes were tested for association and correlated with clinical variables. The two SNPs studied were in complete linkage disequilibrium. None of the determined haplotypes was associated with MS. However, carriers of the GGTT haplotype (defined as wild type, according to the sequence in National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database) had a significantly lower progression index than non-carriers (P = 0.016). Furthermore, amongst patients who had an initial relapsing remitting (RR) course of the disease, the time between onset and second episode was significantly longer in GGTT carriers (P = 0.021). Considering secondary progressive (SP)-MS patients, the time between the initial RR form and the subsequent worsening to SP was longer in this group (P = 0.08). Therefore, the GGTT haplotype of the CXCL10 gene is not a susceptibility factor for the development of MS, but is probably to influence the course of MS, possibly contributing to slow down the progression of the disease.

Morphofunctional evidence of changes in principal and mitochondria-rich cells in the epidermis of the frog Rana kl. esculenta living in a polluted habitat

The epidermis of vertebrates is the body's principal barrier against environment and its possible contaminants. The presence of keratins, as well as specific detoxifying molecules or enzyme activities, in the various epidermis layers is believed to be involved in providing protection from harmful environmental influences. Anuran integument is poorly hornified and thus permeable to some endogenous and exogenous compounds and thus serves as a good bioindicator of overall environmental conditions. In the present investigation, we studied the epidermis of Rana kl. esculenta adult specimens collected at two different rice fields, relatively unpolluted and heavily polluted, respectively. Environmental pollution was assayed by chemical analysis performed on both sediments and animals. We evaluated the structural aspects of the epidermis at both light and electron microscopy levels and the pattern of keratinization by immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, we studied the activities of some enzymes (acid and alkaline phosphatase, nitric oxide synthase-related nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, catalase, nonspecific esterases, and succinic dehydrogenase) involved mainly in membrane transport, xenobiotics, and oxidative metabolism. Compared with controls, in polluted animals we found the following results: (1) an increase in pollutant levels (i.e., cadmium, mercury, and lead); (2) less keratinized superficial cells in the epidermis; and (3) changes in most enzyme activities in keratinocytes and mitochondria-rich cells (particularly glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and esterases, both important to counteract oxidative and toxic stress). Taken as a whole, the present data indicate the morphofunctional plasticity of the frog epidermis in response to environmental contamination.

Time course of matrix metalloproteases and tissue inhibitors in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis

To investigate simultaneously localization and relative activity of MMPs during extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rat, we analyzed the time course of the expression, activity and/or concentration of gelatinases MMP-2 and MMP-9, collagenase MMP-1, matrylisin MMP-7, TIMP-1 and TIMP-2, both in alveolar space (cellular and extracellular compartments) and in lung tissue. MMP and TIMP expression was detected (immunohistochemistry) in lung tissue. MMP activity (zymography) and TIMP concentration (ELISA) were evaluated in lung tissue homogenate (LTH), BAL supernatant (BALs) and BAL cell pellet (BALp) 3, 7, 14, and 28 days after bleomycin intratracheal instillation. Immunohistochemistry showed an extensive MMP and TIMP expression from day 7 in a wide range of structural and inflammatory cells in treated rats. MMP-2 was present mainly in epithelia, MMP-9 in inflammatory cells. MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity was increased respectively in BAL fluid and BAL cells, with a peak at day 7. TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 concentration (ELISA) enhancement was delayed at day 14. In conclusion gelatinases and their inhibitors are significantly activated during bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Marked changes in gelatinases activity are observed early in the alveolar compartment, with a prevailing extracellular activity of MMP-2 and a predominant intracellular distribution of MMP-9, while enzyme activity changes in lung parenchyma were less evident. In the repairing phase the reduction of gelatinases activity is synchronous with a peak of alveolar concentration of their inhibitors.

Styrene hepatotoxicity in rats treated by inhalation or intraperitoneally: a structural investigation

The purpose of this study was to investigate the toxicity of styrene in the liver of adult rats treated either by inhalation of styrene vapour (300 ppm, 6 h/d, 5 d/wk, for 2 wk) or intraperitoneally with different styrene doses (4, 40, 400 mg/Kg) for 3 consecutive days. Using a light microscope, some alterations of liver parenchyma and sinusoid dilation were noticed, more marked in the group treated with the intraperitoneal administration of the chemical. Using an electron microscope, some additional changes were observed (once again, more marked in the latter group of rats): a) an increase in the content of lipids inside hepatocytes, and b) the rise of intracytoplasmic, intercellular and perisinusoidal collagen fibres. Therefore, cell damage and functional disturbance of sinusoids due to perisinusoidal fibrosis are apparent in the liver of both groups of rats exposed to styrene treatment, but these changes are definitely more significant in those subjected to intraperitoneal administration.

Evaluation of a possible styrene-induced damage to the haematopoietic tissues in the rat

The aim of this study was to determine a possible risk of malignancies in the haematopoietic tissues of rats treated with styrene, either by injection or by inhalation. Two experiments were carried out: in the first (acute treatment), 12 male rats were treated intraperitoneally with different doses of styrene (40 mg/Kg/2 ml/die and 400 mg/Kg/2 ml/die) for 3 consecutive days. A control group (6 rats) was administered corn oil 2 ml/kg/die for the same period of time. In the second experiment (chronic treatment), 12 male rats were exposed to styrene inhalation (300 ppm/6 hour day/5 days a week for 2 weeks) for 3 weeks and sacrificed at the end of the experiment or after 3 weeks. The rats treated with the highest doses of styrene by injection (400 mg/kg, acute treatment) showed a hyperactivity of the erythropoietic series while the granulocytopoietic series was at the normal value. The rats exposed to 300 ppm styrene vapour (chronic treatment) showed a statistically significant increase in erythropoietic cells (basophilic, polychromatophilic and orthochromatic erythroblasts). A temporary block of immature cells of the granulocytopoietic series was also evident. These results indicate an alteration of the erythropoietic series independently of method of administration. However, these findings do not show a possible risk of preleukemic or leukemic disorders in rats exposed or treated with styrene.

Nitric oxide-containing neurons in the nervous ganglia of Helix aspersa during rest and activity: immunocytochemical and enzyme histochemical detection

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) immunoreactivity and staining for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase (NADPH-diaphorase) activity are two cytochemical markers for nitric oxide (NO)-containing neurons. The authors examined the changes in the distribution of NOS immunolabeling and NADPH-diaphorase reactivity in the cerebral and buccal ganglia of the terrestrial snail Helix aspersa during resting and active phases. During inactivity and after 1 day of activity, in the mesocerebrum and metacerebrum of the snails, there were several reactive neurons for both markers; after 7 days of activity, the number of reactive neurons was lower. Opposite results were obtained in the buccal ganglia, in which increased staining and numbers of reactive neurons were present in the active snails (after 1 day and 7 days of activity). Although the staining patterns for the two reactions were similar, colocalization was not always observed. The comparison between inactive and active animals provided a more precise survey of NOS-containing neurons in the snail cerebral ganglia than previously described. Moreover, it suggested that not only is NO involved in distinct nervous circuits, but, as a ubiquitous molecule, it also plays a role in neuroprotection and neuropeptide release.

Comparison of K(+)-p-nitrophenyl phosphatase activity in the urinary bladder of the frog Rana esculenta during hibernation and active life

We have studied effects of hibernation on the frog urinary bladder, an organ involved in water and ion transepithelial transport and taking part in osmoregulation. We have demonstrated K(+)-p-nitrophenyl phosphatase activity (an enzyme involved in ion and water transport) both in active and hibernating frogs. Most of the reaction product deposition was found on basolateral membranes of granular cells of the urinary bladder epithelium during all seasons. Therefore, it seems likely that this organ, unlike organs studied previously (skin, kidney and lung), maintains its function in the osmoregulatory process during hibernation.

Effect of subchronic ethanol ingestion on styrene-induced damage to the tracheal and pulmonary epithelium of the rat

Previous studies have indicated that ethanol may affect styrene metabolism and toxicity in target tissues (e.g. brain). Morphological and biochemical changes have been reported in the respiratory tract of laboratory animals exposed to styrene either by inhalation or i.p. injection. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to investigate the influence of subchronic ethanol administration (5% in a Lieber-DeCarli liquid diet) on the morphological alterations of the respiratory tract induced by styrene inhalation (300 ppm, 6 h day(-1), 5 days a week for 2 weeks) in rats. Levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) in lung and liver tissues as well as in erythrocytes and whole blood were studied as indicators of overall GSH status, and urinary levels of the styrene metabolites-mandelic acid and phenylglyoxylic acid-were also measured as indicators of styrene-absorbed dose. Rats exposed to 300 ppm styrene presented morphological alterations throughout the respiratory tract. Electron microscopy analysis showed diffuse cell damage involving the tracheal, bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium. These abnormalities were accompanied by 40% depletion of GSH in the lung tissue and also 35% depletion in hepatic GSH in the absence of alteration of the GSH content in blood. Styrene metabolism was apparently induced by subchronic ethanol treatment, as indicated by an increased excretion of urinary mandelic (+140%, P < 0.05) and phenylglyoxylic (+50%) acids. However, repeated ethanol administration did not exacerbate the lung GSH depletion nor the damaging effect to the respiratory tract induced by the 2-week exposure to styrene alone. The lack of effects of ethanol on styrene pulmonary toxicity after combined exposure may be due to the different tissue distribution of the cytochrome P-450 isoforms involved in the styrene biotransformation to styrene-7,8-oxide, and their different induction by ethanol.

Cytochemical evidence for potassium-dependent p-nitrophenylphosphatase activity in pavement cells of Rana esculenta mesentery

BACKGROUND

We previously reported that during hibernation in Rana esculenta, various organs (i.e., skin, urinary bladder, kidney) change their osmoregulatory activity. Here, we considered the possible role of the frog mesentery in the ion transport, evaluating morphological and cytochemical (K+-p-nitrophenylphosphatase activity) aspects.

METHODS

Pieces of mesentery from Rana esculenta collected in their natural environment during April, June, October, and January were processed to reveal ultrastructural morphology and K+-p-NPPase activity, using cerium as capture agent.

RESULTS

The mesenteric mesothelium contained three types of cells: pavement, mitochondria-rich, and ciliated. Only the pavement cells expressed intense reactivity on the basolateral membranes and in the adjacent pinocytotic vesicles; some reaction product also was found on the apical membranes. Moreover, morphological and cytochemical characteristics of the pavement cells appeared to be very seasonal.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of mitochondria-rich cells and ciliated cells, generally found in structures involved in the transport of liquids, as well as K+-p-NPPase activity and pinocytosis in pavement cells, is consistent with the hypothesis that frog mesentery may be involved in seasonally variable osmoregulation.

Styrene-induced alterations in the respiratory tract of rats treated by inhalation or intraperitoneally

Although exposure to styrene occurs primarily via inhalation, the action of this agent on the respiratory tract has scarcely been investigated. This article describes morphological and biochemical changes occurring in the respiratory tract of rats after either inhalation of styrene vapors (300 ppm, 6 h/d, 5 d/wk, for 2 wk) or systemic (ip) treatment with 40 or 400 mg/kg styrene for 3 consecutive days. Electron microscopy analysis showed diffuse cell damage involving the tracheal, bronchiolar, and alveolar epithelium. In the tracheal epithelium, several cell types were affected. Ciliated cells presented vacuolation, detachment of cilia, blebbing of the apical cytoplasm, and compound cilia. Most secretory cells showed scant secretory granules and blebbings. Dense bodies and fibrillary inclusions were seen in intermediate and basal cells. Styrene also caused alterations of cytoplasmic components in type II pneumocytes and bronchiolar cells as well as thickness of the alveolar wall. These abnormalities were accompanied by depletion of glutathione (GSH) in the lung tissue. Pneumotoxic effects of systemic administration of styrene were dose dependent and tended to be more severe than those seen in the animals exposed for longer periods to styrene by inhalation. Metabolic activation of styrene and subsequent cell damage induced by the reactive metabolite styrene oxide may be involved in the sequence of events culminating in the toxic insult to the respiratory tract.

Cytochemical demonstration of nitric oxide synthase and 5' nucleotidase in human glioblastoma

Both nitric oxide (NO), formed from L-arginine by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS), and adenosine, which is produced by 5' nucleotidase (5' N) acting on adenosine 5' monophosphate (5' AMP) are implicated in several neurophysiological processes. In addition, 5' N is a linker protein involved in cell motility. Alterations of both enzyme activities seem to be responsible for some pathological states of the central nervous system (CNS). In the present report, we have studied the cytochemical demonstration of NOS and 5' N activities in human glioblastoma cells. Enzyme activity of both was observed in tumor cells; moreover, the coincidence of enzyme histochemistry and immunohistochemistry for NOS was noted in most cases. The findings were interpreted on the basis of the cytotoxic effects due to NO production by tumor cells, and on the non-catalytic role of membrane 5' N which acting as an adhesive molecule can favour tumor invasiveness.

An ultrastructural and cytochemical study of the mesonephros of Rana esculenta during activity and hibernation

The biological cycle of most amphibians undergoes seasonal variations. In this study, we investigated the mesonephros of Rana esculenta during active life and the natural hibernation period. The ultrastructural morphology of the different tracts constituting the nephron was analysed. Moreover, to evaluate the effect of seasonal temperature variations on the mesonephros function, the activity of some enzymes linked to membrane transport and playing regulatory roles in various metabolic pathways was investigated in different tracts of the frog nephron. During hibernation the glomerular filtration barrier appeared thicker than in the active life, lysosomes and paraplasmatic material, mostly glycogen, being accumulated in the proximal and distal tubule cells respectively. Cytoplasmic organelles, i.e., mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum were observed in segregated areas. At the same time, changes in some enzyme activities were noted. The activity of some membrane-transport enzymes (5' nucleotidase and K+-p-nitrophenyl phosphatase) and of energetic metabolism (succinic dehydrogenase) was reduced. Nevertheless the alkaline phosphatase activity was not changed significantly, and this suggests that some metabolic activities were preserved in the hibernating samples. These results indicate morpho-functional adaptations of the kidney cells that preserve their role in osmoregulation and some metabolic processes, even during unfavourable seasons.

A re-evaluation of the ultrastructural localization of 5'-nucleotidase activity in the developing rat cerebellum, with a cerium-based method

The membrane ectoenzyme 5'-nucleotidase converts 5'-AMP into adenosine which, in the nervous tissue, plays an important role as intercellular messenger. Moreover, during histogenesis, 5'-nucleotidase seems to be related to cell proliferation and migration. Conflicting data are reported in the literature about the localization (neuronal or glial) of 5'-nucleotides in the rat cerebellum. In the present report we have analyzed the distribution of 5'-nucleotidase activity with electron microscopy, using a cerium-based method, at different postnatal histogenetic stages (postnatal days (PND) 11, 17, 28). On PND 11 and 17, rims of reaction product outlined the plasma membranes of some neuroblasts in the external granular layer and of parallel fibers and some migrating cells in the developing molecular layer. Positivity was frequently observed on membranes of adjacent neuronal cells and glial processes. Moderate activity was also present on the membranes of granule cells and of mossy fiber rosettes and granule cell dendrites constituting the cerebellar glomeruli within the internal granule cell layer. At PND 28, the reaction product was slightly reduced in some localizations. Cytochemical patterns prove that the cerium-based method is suitable for demonstration of 5'-nucleotidase-specific activity. In fact, a continuous and fine reaction product appears strictly linked to the cell membranes, and no unevenly scattered precipitates can be observed. Data suggest that, during cerebellar histogenesis, 5'-nucleotidase may be involved in the mechanisms of cell migration and proliferation. However, in adulthood, prominent localization of the reaction product on neuronal elements suggests a major role in neuromodulation processes for the enzyme.

The cerebral neurons of Helix aspersa during hibernation. Changes in the cytochemical detection of calmodulin, cytoskeletal components and phosphatases

Some markers of the intracellular systems that regulate neuronal activity and morphology were analyzed in the cerebral ganglion of hibernating snails (Helix aspersa), in comparison with active animals. The immunocytochemical expression of a calcium-binding protein, i.e. calmodulin, and some cytoskeletal components, i.e. 200 kDa phosphorylated neurofilament protein (pNFH), microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP2) and alpha-tubulin were analyzed by the use of a panel of antibodies raised against mammal antigens. Moreover, by enzymatic reactions the Ca(2+)-ATPase and alkaline phosphatase (AIPase) activities were demonstrated. In comparison with the active phase, the hibernation induced an increase in the immunopositivity for calmodulin in all the neurons. The increase may be linked to unmasking of immunoreactive epitopes due to conformational changes of the protein, which in turn may be a consequence of a reduction or absence of binding with calcium ions or of a real increase in the amount of calmodulin in the somata of neurons. In any event, both the hypotheses indicate that neurons have decreased or suppressed the Ca(2+)-dependent mechanisms as also shown by the lower Ca(2+)-ATPase activity. Nevertheless, the AIPase activity, which was localized in the epineural sheat, was not significantly changed during hibernation and this supports that some metabolic activities are preserved in the hibernated animals. Changes in the immunopositivity for cytoskeletal components were found. There was an increase in the epitopes recognized by the mammalian pNF antibody, that concerned both the positivity of the entire cytoplasm of some clusters of metacerebral neurons and the intensity of the reaction. This would be aimed to improve the stability of the somata and primary neurites. Moreover, the decrease of alpha-tubulin and MAP2 immunopositivity, suggests that a disassembly of microtubules have occurred. The findings indicate that the transport of vesicles in the axons is slowed down during hibernation. In fact, research in progress show that the patterns of neurotransmission and neuromodulation are also deeply modified.

Acute promyelocytic leukemia toluidine blue subtype

In the hypergranular group of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) a rare subvariant with basophilic granules, metachromatic for toluidine blue, is recognizable. To evaluate the incidence as well as the biological and clinical significance of this subtype, we studied 53 consecutive untreated patients with APL with morphological, cytochemical, immunological and cytogenetic methods. In 10 cases (19% of the total) granules stained metachromatically in percentages of promyelocytes ranging from 16 to 60. In these cases peroxidase positivity was weaker than in the classic hypergranular and microgranular M3 and activities of esterases were usually present; at the ultrastructural level granules contained particulate material. Immunophenotypic and cytogenetic characteristics seemed not to differ from those of other M3 cases. Coagulopathy was usually life-threatening, notwithstanding the low white cell count, and the median survival was short. Hyperhistaminemia-related symptoms were not observed. Cytochemical, immunologic and cytogenetic findings are useful to differentiate this form from M2 with basophilic differentiation and from mast cell leukemia.

Abrogating chemotherapy-induced myelosuppression by recombinant granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in patients with sarcoma: protection at the progenitor cell level

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to optimize the dose, schedule, and timing of recombinant granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) administration that would best abrogate myelosuppression in patients with sarcoma.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Sarcoma patients who had experienced severe myelosuppression after chemotherapy with Cytoxan (cyclophosphamide; Bristol-Myers Squibb Co, Evansville, IN), Adriamycin (doxorubicin; Adria Laboratories, Columbus, OH), and dacarbazine ([CyADIC], cycle 1) were eligible. GM-CSF was administered during a 14-day period until 1 week before cycle 2 of CyADIC and was resumed 2 days after cycle 2 completion. The schedule subsequently was modified to allow the earlier administration of GM-CSF in which CyADIC was compressed from 5 days to 3 days, and GM-CSF was administered immediately after the discontinuation of CyADIC in cycle 2. To understand better the impact of GM-CSF on bone marrow stem cells, the proliferative status of bone marrow progenitors was examined during treatment. To evaluate the effects of GM-CSF on effector cells, select functions of mature myeloid cells were also examined.

RESULTS

In the seven patients who were treated on the initial schedule, GM-CSF enhanced the rate of neutrophil recovery; however, severe neutropenia was not abrogated, By using the modified schedule in 17 patients, GM-CSF significantly reduced both the degree and the duration of neutropenia and myeloid (neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes) leukopenia. The mean neutrophil and mature myeloid nadir counts were 100/mm3 and 280/mm3 in cycle 1 and 290/mm3 and 1,540/mm3 in cycle 2 (P less than .01 and P less than .001). The duration of severe neutropenia (neutrophil count less than 500/mm3) and myeloid leukopenia (myeloid leukocyte count less than 1,000/mm3) were reduced from 6.2 and 6.8 days in cycle 1 to 2.8 and 1.4 days in cycle 2 (P less than .001). While 16 of 17 patients experienced severe myeloid leukopenia (less than 500/mm3) in cycle 1, only two of 17 experienced severe myeloid leukopenia in cycle 2 (P less than .001). Overall, severe neutropenia was abrogated in seven patients, which made them eligible for dose-escalation of Adriamycin. The fraction of cycling progenitors increased threefold on GM-CSF and decreased dramatically below the baseline within 1 day of GM-CSF discontinuation.

CONCLUSIONS

The modified schedule improved the beneficial effects of GM-CSF by enhancing myeloprotection and permitting dose-intensification of chemotherapy. The increased myeloid mass and quiescent progenitors at the initiation of chemotherapy suggest that GM-CSF might allow further chemotherapy dose-rate intensification by shortening the interval between courses.

Frog hepatocyte modifications induced by seasonal variations: a morphological and cytochemical study

A correlated morphological and cytochemical approach was employed to study frog hepatocytes in different periods of their annual cycle, including the natural hibernating period. There were considerable changes in the distribution and organization of hepatic glycogen in different phases of the annual cycle, and distribution of organelles as well. The most striking findings were glycogen storage during the prehibernation and hibernation phases, followed by drastic glycogen depletion. Cytochemical staining of a number of enzymes (succinate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, paranitrophenyl phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and glucose-6-phosphatase) involved in a variety of metabolic pathways, showed various cytoplasmic localizations and differences in intensity of the reaction products as a function of seasonality. Morphological and cytochemical data were interpreted as evidencing different functional requirements during seasonal changes in the frog.

The syndrome of abnormal chromatin clumping in leucocytes: clinical and biological study of a case

The authors report the clinical and biological findings of a case of a rare haematological malignant entity, morphologically characterised by a bizarre nuclear abnormality in granulocytes, consisting of exaggerated chromatin clumping and apparent fragmentation of the nucleus, with a loss of segmentation. They emphasize the coexistence of proliferative and dysplastic characteristics as a distinctive marker of this disorder and suggest it may represent a distinct rare morphological entity among the atypical chronic myeloid leukaemias, Ph1 and ber negative.

5' Nucleotidase in chronic B cell leukemias: a cytochemical and ultrastructural study

We studied by cytochemical means the distribution of 5' nucleotidase (5' NT), a purine degradative enzyme, in the circulating lymphocytes of 24 healthy donors and 41 cases of chronic lymphoid leukemias, classified according to morphological and immunological criteria. About half the normal circulating lymphocytes were 5'NT positive and exhibited variable degrees of enzyme activity. Among chronic B lymphocytic leukemias we found high percentages of positive cells only in the phenotypically more mature cases. Moreover all cases of hairy cell, follicular cell, lymphoplasmacytic, and plasma cell leukemia showed moderate or weak 5' NT reactivity. Also one case of chronic T lymphocytic leukemia, CD8 positive, was moderately positive, while another, with large granular lymphocyte morphology, was completely negative. Electron microscopy revealed a discontinuous, granular plasma membrane reaction pattern, varying in intensity from case to case. In conclusion, our results confirm the usefulness of the 5' NT cytochemical reaction for identification of lymphoid populations at different stages of maturation in chronic B cell disorders.

Ultrastructural patterns of the alpha-naphthyl butyrate esterase activity in normal and leukaemic peripheral blood leucocytes

The activity of alpha-naphthyl butyrate esterase was investigated at the ultrastructural level in normal human peripheral blood and in a few cases of hairy cell leukaemia, B-chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and acute monocytic leukaemia. A membrane reactivity was detected in most normal monocytes and lymphocytes. The activity in monocytes was very strong and was inhibited by NaF. It was NaF-resistant and less intense in lymphocytes. The reaction product was localized in the cytoplasm only in a small percentage of lymphocytes. In lymphocytes and monoblasts from pathological samples the pattern of reactivity was similar to that found in their normal counterparts, except for a lower intensity. The hairy cells showed a discrete distribution of the NaF-resistant reaction product on their cell surface. The different patterns of enzyme distribution are discussed critically.