A biscarbene gold(I)-NHC-complex overcomes cisplatin-resistance in A2780 and W1 ovarian cancer cells highlighting pERK as regulator of apoptosis

PURPOSE

Cisplatin resistance is the major obstacle in the clinical treatment of ovarian cancer patients. Molecular mechanisms of cisplatin resistance are multifaceted. Gold(I)-compounds, i.e. N-heterocyclic carbene-gold(I)-complexes (NHC-Au(I)) has been regarded as promising cytotoxic drug candidates. However, their potential to overcome cisplatin resistance has hardly been addressed yet. Here we investigated the activity of the gold(I) drug auranofin and the NHC-Au(I)-compound MC3 in W1CR and A2780cis cisplatin-resistant ovarian cancer cells.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity of auranofin and MC3 was detected by MTT assay, correlated with intracellular gold(I) content, analyzed by AAS, and with flow cytometric detection of the cell cycle. Insight into cellular redox balance was provided by fluorimetric ROS-formation assay and western blotting thioredoxin (Trx) and Nrf2. The role of ERK was elucidated by using the inhibitor SCH772984 and its impact on cytotoxicity upon co-treatment with cisplatin and Au(I)-compounds, respectively.

RESULTS

MC3 overcomes cisplatin resistance in A2780cis and W1CR, and auranofin in W1CR cells completely, which is neither reflected by intracellular gold levels nor cell cycle changes. Upregulated redox balance appears as a basis for resistance. W1CR cells possess higher Trx levels, whereas A2780cis cells display strong Nrf2 expression as anti-oxidative protection. Nevertheless, overcoming redox balance appears not primary mode of activity comparing cisplatin and gold(I)-compounds. pERK emerges as a critical component and thus a promising target for overcoming resistance, regulating apoptosis differently in response to either gold(I) or cisplatin in A2780 cells.

CONCLUSION

These data reflect the complexity of cisplatin resistance in cell models and emphasize NHC-Au(I)-complexes as prospective cytotoxic agents for further investigations in that respect.

Metallodrug Profiling against SARS-CoV-2 Target Proteins Identifies Highly Potent Inhibitors of the S/ACE2 interaction and the Papain-like Protease PLpro

The global spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has called for an urgent need for dedicated antiviral therapeutics. Metal complexes are commonly underrepresented in compound libraries that are used for screening in drug discovery campaigns, however, there is growing evidence for their role in medicinal chemistry. Based on previous results, we have selected more than 100 structurally diverse metal complexes for profiling as inhibitors of two relevant SARS-CoV-2 replication mechanisms, namely the interaction of the spike (S) protein with the ACE2 receptor and the papain-like protease PLpro . In addition to many well-established types of mononuclear experimental metallodrugs, the pool of compounds tested was extended to approved metal-based therapeutics such as silver sulfadiazine and thiomersal, as well as polyoxometalates (POMs). Among the mononuclear metal complexes, only a small number of active inhibitors of the S/ACE2 interaction was identified, with titanocene dichloride as the only strong inhibitor. However, among the gold and silver containing complexes many turned out to be very potent inhibitors of PLpro activity. Highly promising activity against both targets was noted for many POMs. Selected complexes were evaluated in antiviral SARS-CoV-2 assays confirming activity for gold complexes with N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) or dithiocarbamato ligands, a silver NHC complex, titanocene dichloride as well as a POM compound. These studies might provide starting points for the design of metal-based SARS-CoV-2 antiviral agents.

[(C C)Au(N N)]+ Complexes as a New Family of Anticancer Candidates: Synthesis, Characterization and Exploration of the Antiproliferative Properties

A library of eleven cationic gold(III) complexes of the general formula [(C C)Au(N N)]⁺ when C C is either biphenyl or 4,4'-ditertbutyldiphenyl and N N is a bipyridine, phenanthroline or dipyridylamine derivative have been synthesized and characterized. Contrasting effects on the viability of the triple negative breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 was observed from a preliminary screening. The antiproliferative activity of the seven most active complexes were further assayed on a larger panel of human cancer cells as well as on non-cancerous cells for comparison. Two complexes stood out for being either highly active or highly selective. Eventually, reactivity studies with biologically meaningful amino acids, glutathione, higher order DNA structures and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) revealed a markedly different behavior from that of the well-known coordinatively isomeric [(C N C)Au(NHC)]⁺ structure. This makes the [(C C)Au(N N)]⁺ complexes a new class of organogold compounds with an original mode of action.

Gold Metallodrugs to Target Coronavirus Proteins: Inhibitory Effects on the Spike-ACE2 Interaction and on PLpro Protease Activity by Auranofin and Gold Organometallics*

Gold complexes have a long tradition in medicine and for many examples antirheumatic, anticancer or anti-infective effects have been confirmed. Herein, we evaluated the lead compound Auranofin and five selected gold organometallics as inhibitors of two relevant drug targets of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV). The gold metallodrugs were effective inhibitors of the interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) host receptor and might thus interfere with the viral entry process. The gold metallodrugs were also efficient inhibitors of the papain-like protease (PLpro) of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2, which is a key enzyme in the viral replication. Regarding PLpro from SARS-CoV-2, the here reported inhibitors are among the very first experimentally confirmed examples with activity against this target enzyme. Importantly, the activity of the complexes against both PLpro enzymes correlated with the ability of the inhibitors to remove zinc ions from the labile zinc center of the enzyme. Taken together, the results of this pilot study suggest further evaluation of gold complexes as SARS-CoV antiviral drugs.

A Multitarget Gold(I) Complex Induces Cytotoxicity Related to Aneuploidy in HCT-116 Colorectal Carcinoma Cells

A novel alkynyl phosphane gold(I) complex (trimethylphosphane)(3-(1,3-dimethylxanthine-7-yl)prop-1-yn-1-yl)gold(I) 1 displayed mutiple biological activites including selective proliferation inhibitory, anti-metastatic, and anti-angiogenic effects. The complex also induced effects related to aneuploidy in HCT-116 colon carcinoma cells, which might be mainly ascribed to the dysfunction of mitochondrial bioenergetics and downregulation of glycolysis. Induction of aneuploidy beyond a critical level can provide an effective strategy to target cancer, in particular colorectal tumours with a low tolerance of aneuploidy, and could be of relevance for 1 and other metallodrugs.

Insektenhäutungshormone und ihre Wirkungsweise

25-Desoxyecdysteron und Ecdysteron werden im Fettkörper von Larven der Schmeißfliege Calliphora erythrocephala umgewandelt in Glykoside. Aus enzymatischen und chemischen Untersuchungen schließen wir, daß 3β- (α-Glucopyranosido) -Derivate der Hormone gebildet werden. Bereits 30 Min. nach Injektion von 3 Calliphora-Einheiten/Larve sind 85% des Hormons in das Glykosid umgewandelt. Im Erfolgsorgan Epidermis findet weder eine Glykosid-Synthese statt noch wird das Glykosid in stärkerem Ausmaß von der Epidermis aufgenommen. Die Glykosidbildung erfolgt durch eine Uridindiphosphalglucose: Ecdysteron-Transglucosylasc.

Untersuchungen über die Struktur und biochemische Wirkung von Ecdysteron

Ecdysteron ist ein neues Steroidhormon der Insekten. Die chemische Struktur ist aus dem spektroskopischen und chemischen Verhalten der Substanz abzuleiten: Ecdysteron ist danach ein 2β,3β,14ɑ,20ɑF,22/βF,25-Hexahydroxy-5β-cholesten-(7)-on-(6). Die biochemische Wirkung von Ecdysteron ist der des Ecdysons sehr ähnlich.

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF), intracellular adhesion molecule (sICAM-1) level in serum and follicular fluid of infertile women with polycystic ovarian syndrome, endometriosis and tubal damage, and their effect on ICSI outcome

PROBLEM

The objective of this study was to determine the concentration of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and soluble intracellular adhesions molecule (sICAM-1) in serum and follicular fluid (FF) of polycystic ovary (PCO), endometriosis and tubal factor infertility and male factor infertility patients, and to investigate the relationship between these parameters and the outcome of intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).

METHOD OF STUDY

The concentration of FGF and sICAM-1 in serum and FF were determined in patients undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH) for ICSI therapy for various etiology of infertility and the results of cytokines concentration and ICSI outcome were compared between the groups. Twenty patients with PCO (G.I), 17 with endometriosis (G.II), 19 with tubal damage (G.III) and 19 with male factor infertility (G.IV) were enrolled in this study. Quantitative determination of levels of FGF and sICAM-1 was performed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs).

RESULTS

The FGF level in serum of PCO patients (G.I) were 4.8 +/- 2.3 and in FF were 104.0 +/- 39.0 pg/mL. The corresponding values in the endometriosis patients group (G.II) were 5.9 +/- 3.1 and 125.4 +/- 74.9 pg/mL. The concentration of FGF in tubal factor infertility group (G.III) in serum was significantly higher (P = 0.009) than those observed in the PCO group (G.I) 7.4 +/- 4.5 pg/mL, whereas the concentration in FF was at the same level like the other groups investigated, 128.7 +/- 75.9 pg/mL. Besides, the sICAM-1 (pg/ml) concentration in FF showed a significant difference between the groups investigated (G.I, 175.3 +/- 52.8; G.II 194.4 +/- 32.2; G.III 233.1 +/- 54.3; and G.IV 215.1 +/- 54.4 ng/mL; P = 0.003). The sICAM-1 levels in serum were not significantly different between the groups (217.0 +/- 42.9; 216.3 +/- 73.6; 254.8 +/- 79.6; 237.56 +/- 78.4 ng/ml; P = 0.267). The fertilization rate was significantly higher in G.III (66.0 +/- 23.89%) in comparison to G.II (38.8 +/- 33.9%; P = 0.014) or G.IV (38.7 +/- 22.7%; P = 0.012). The pregnancy rates were similar in all groups (30, 35.3 and 35.0, 38.6%, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Both, FGF and sICAM-1 are present in serum and FF of patients undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation for ICSI therapy. The FGF concentration in serum differs significantly between the groups investigated, whereas, no significant difference could be observed in the FF concentration of FGF. On the other hand, the sICAM in serum showed no significant difference between the groups, whereas, sICAM in FF demonstrated a significant difference between the patient groups investigated. On the whole, the ICSI outcome was not related to serum or FF concentrations of FGF or sICAM-1. Therefore, the mean concentration of FGF and sICAM-1 in serum and in FF could not be used to predict the fertilization rate in an ICSI program.

A comparison of serum total cholesterol levels and their determinants between the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States

Mean serum total cholesterol levels appear to be higher in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) than in the United States (US) while coronary heart disease death rates are lower. The study examined possible factors for the difference including possible differences in laboratory methodology. Cross-sectional data from the first two waves of the German National Health Surveys (1984-1986 and 1987-1989; n = 9709) and from the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1976-1980; n = 7832) were compared for men and women 25-69 years of age. The influence of age, body mass index, diet, cigarette smoking, education, income, use of oral contraceptives or antihypertensive agents, alcohol consumption and potential differences in laboratory measurement were explored using multiple regression techniques separately for men and women for ages 25-39, 40-59 and 60-69 years of age. Overall ages, unadjusted mean total cholesterol levels were higher in German than US men (6.02 vs. 5.64 mmol/l) and in German than US women (6.04 vs. 5.80 mmol/l) as were HDL cholesterol levels (men: 1.30 vs 1.14 mmol/l; women: 1.65 vs. 1.38 mmol/l). Adjusting for lifestyle factors explained, on the average, 40% of the differences in mean total cholesterol of which half or 20% was accounted for by adjusting for alcohol intake. Adjusting for possible laboratory differences explained, on the average, an additional 30% of the differences. Frequency of alcohol intake was the most important factor in explaining differences in mean HDL cholesterol levels. Adjustment for differences in alcohol intake had negligible effects on reducing the differences in mean non-HDL cholesterol.

The relationship between alcohol consumption, health indicators and mortality in the German population

BACKGROUND

The patterns of total alcohol, beer and wine consumption were evaluated in the German National Health Surveys. The impact of these habits on cardiovascular and all-cause mortality as well as cardiovascular risk factors and liver disease parameters was estimated.

METHODS

Independent representative samples of the German population (15,400 people), and regional samples of the Berlin-Spandau population (2,370 in total), aged 25-69 years, were analysed. The amount and frequency of alcohol consumption was assessed with standardized questionnaires. Biochemical analyses included serum lipids and gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase (Gamma GT). Multiple analyses of variance were used to determine the relationship between alcohol intake and biochemical parameters. A mortality follow-up of about 7 years was conducted for the Berlin-Spandau population. Proportional hazard models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HR) for all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.

RESULTS

Over 80% of men and 55% of women in Germany drink alcohol on a regular base. The majority of the consumers (65% of men, 87% of women) are light (1-20 g/day) or moderate (21-40 g/day) drinkers. Higher serum high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol and Gamma GT levels were observed with increasing alcohol intake. In light and moderate drinkers no significant relationship was seen with non-HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, blood pressure and body mass index, compared to teetotallers. Men who consumed 1-20 g alcohol/day had a significantly lower all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. As compared to nondrinkers, the risk was almost 50% lower.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that light (and possibly moderate) alcohol consumption reduces the risk of cardiovascular and total mortality risk and is favourably related to HDL-cholesterol.

The relationship between resting heart rate and all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality

AIMS

The association between resting heart rate and changes in heart rate with all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality was studied among 1827 men and 2929 women, aged 40-80 years, followed for 12 years.

METHODS AND RESULTS

After adjustment for initial age, serum cholesterol, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, smoking and diabetes, the all-cause mortality hazard ratio was 1.7 (95% confidence interval 1.4-2.2) for heart rate increments of 20 beats.min-1 for men and 1.4 (confidence interval 1.1-1.8) for women. For cardiovascular mortality, the risk estimates were 1.7 (confidence interval 1.2-2.6) for men and 1.3 (confidence interval 0.9-2.0) for women. We observed no significant association between heart rate and cancer mortality. For women, stronger predictive information for all-cause mortality was provided if changes in heart rate were evident at the 2-year review.

CONCLUSION

The resting heart rate is a predictor of mortality, independent of major cardiovascular risk factors.

Increased prevalence of sensitization against aeroallergens in adults in West compared with East Germany

BACKGROUND

An increased prevalence of allergic diseases and atopic sensitization as assessed by skin-prick testing in children in West compared with East Germany has been reported.

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to evaluate whether such a difference is also present in adults, and if this can be shown when using a serological test for allergic sensitization.

METHODS

Two large samples representative for all adults between 25 and 69 years of age were drawn in West (1991, n = 5313) and East Germany (1992, n = 2617). A serological test screening for IgE-antibodies to common aeroallergens (SX1) was performed. A questionnaire was used to assess the presence of clinical respiratory allergy, known possible risk factors for allergies and confounding variables.

RESULTS

Allergic sensitization decreased with age. Significantly more subjects < 45 years of age had a positive allergy test in West as compared to East Germany. The prevalence of clinical allergy was also higher in West Germany. This difference was significant in younger adults and was independent of other risk factors identified. These additional risk factors encompassed younger age, higher educational level, male sex, and living in a community with more than 100,000 inhabitants.

CONCLUSION

Sensitization to common aeroallergens as determined by a multiple allergen RAST test in adults below 45 years of age living in West Germany is increased compared to East Germany. This increase cannot be explained by genetic differences and is similar to the West to East decreasing gradient in allergies reported from studies in children employing skin-prick tests.

Physical activity and its association with cardiovascular risk factors and mortality

We compared various indices for physical activity and their association with cardiovascular risk factors as well as total and cardiovascular disease mortality. We used data from three independent national representative samples in Germany, with a total of 7,689 men and 7,747 women age 25-69 years. Persons with high conditioning physical activity had more favorable risk factor levels compared with sedentary persons, after adjustment for age, body mass index, smoking, survey period, and socioeconomic status. We observed a clear association with mortality only for intense physical activity. The rate ratio (RR) for total mortality was 0.36 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.16-0.79] and 0.26 (95% CI = 0.08-0.83) for cardiovascular disease mortality for men spending more than 2 hours per week on sports, compared with sedentary men. Among women, the corresponding RR for total mortality was 0.28 (95% CI = 0.07-1.17). The effect of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality among women was not clear owing to few fatal cardiovascular events.

Reduction of coronary heart disease risk factors in the German cardiovascular prevention study

BACKGROUND

In six regions of former West Germany, a community-oriented prevention program for coronary heart disease (CHD) was conducted over a 7-year period.

METHODS

In the intervention regions, CHD prevention activities were performed with special emphasis on healthy nutrition, increased physical activity, and reduction of smoking, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia. The impact of these activities on CHD risk factor trends was observed in three independent samples of the intervention regions. Three independent representative samples of the total West German population were used as a reference. Linear regression models with interaction terms to represent the intervention effects were used to test for differences in risk factor trends.

RESULTS

In the pooled intervention regions, a net reduction in mean values of systolic (-2.0%) and diastolic (-2.0%) blood pressure, total serum cholesterol (-1.8%), as well as the percentage of smokers (-6.7%) was observed compared with the nationwide trend. From the major CHD risk factors, only body mass index was not influenced in the intervention population.

CONCLUSIONS

The community-oriented German Cardiovascular Prevention program can effectively be used to reduce CHD risk factors in a broad population.

Trend of cardiovascular risk factors in the East German population 1968-1992

The deteriorating trend of life expectance since the mid 1970s, mainly due to higher cardiovascular mortality in the East compared to West Germany, requires explanations about what happened to the cardiovascular risk factor profile in the East. Epidemiologic studies in the East German population have been performed for about 25 years and can justify a first answer to the question, whether the opening gap in life expectancy could be attributable to a deteriorating cardiovascular risk factor profile of the 25-64 year old population. During a review process reliable epidemiological studies in the East German population have been identified to describe sequential changes from 1968 to 1992 in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP) total cholesterol (CHOL), body mass index (BMI) and cigarette smoking in five periods of time. The mean SBP increased in males of higher age groups, whereas it dropped in females in all age groups in this period of time. The mean CHOL showed a striking increase in both sexes and levelled off in the mid 1980s only. The mean BMI increased slightly in men of the middle age groups and remained almost unchanged in women. The prevalence of cigarette smoking increased in both sexes until the 1970s, and declined thereafter in the age groups over 40, however, there is an increasing tendency in young age groups and females after the wall came down. These trends are congruent with the hypothesis, that the increasingly unfavourable trend of life expectancy in East Germany (compared to the continuously improving trend in West Germany) is at least partly attributable to the trend of the cardiovascular risk factor profile.

National trends in risk factors for cardiovascular disease in Germany

BACKGROUND

National representative health surveys for Germany were conducted for the first time in 1984/85 and again in 1987/88 and 1990/91.

METHODS

Data from these three independent population samples (ages 25-69 years) are used to describe national trends in cardiovascular risk factors. In addition, national cardiovascular disease mortality rates during this time period are presented.

RESULTS

A net rise in median total serum cholesterol level of 0.17 mmol/liter (6.6 mg/dl) for men and 0.08 mmol/liter (3.1 mg/dl) for women was observed. Also observed was an increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol of 0.04 mmol/liter (1.5 mg/dl) for men and of 0.09 mmol/liter (3.5 mg/dl) for women. This resulted in a favorable increase in the HDL/total cholesterol quotient. There were no statistically significant changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, with the exception of a net increase of 2 mm Hg in systolic blood pressure for women. A net rise of 0.3 kg/m2 for men and 0.4 kg/m2 for women in body mass index was observed. The prevalence of male smokers declined during the observed period while the prevalence of female smokers increased.

CONCLUSIONS

Most of the measured risk factors increased in both sexes during the study period. This is not reflected in cardiovascular mortality, which has shown a steady downward trend for more than 20 years.

The relationship between coffee consumption and serum cholesterol under consideration of smoking history

A large German population sample of 6820 men and 7258 women was used to investigate the relationship between coffee consumption, total serum cholesterol and HDL cholesterol. Analyses were conducted on men and women separately. Differences in age, body mass index, diastolic blood pressure, smoking habits, alcohol, fish, milk and tea consumption, physical activity and medication use were controlled for in the analyses. Interactions between coffee consumption and smoking habits in their relationship with serum cholesterol were part of the analyses. For men, a positive relationship between coffee consumption and total serum cholesterol was found among smokers and life-long abstainers but not in the group of ex-smokers. In women a relationship between coffee consumption and total serum cholesterol was also present, but very weak (only statistical significant in covariance analyses). Levels of HDL cholesterol did not correlate with coffee consumption in either men and women. Hypotheses concerning the peculiarities of the group of ex-smokers are developed, and supporting empirical evidence is given. It is suggested that the group of ex-smokers should always be analysed separately.

Consequences of current lipid guidelines for the Federal Republic of Germany

According to the results of the first nationally representative population study in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) conducted in 1984-1986, a vast majority of the population have elevated cholesterol levels and undesirable low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. This problem increases with age in two dimensions, more individuals become hyperlipemic and those who were hyperlipemic develop more extreme pathologic values. Preliminary analyses suggest that the national profile in the FRG is worse than that of the USA. Based on the current recommendations of the national cholesterol education program of the USA, 23 million adults in the FRG should be receiving dietary advice for elevated lipid levels and 18 million persons should be in regular treatment programs. Consequently, implementation of such a national strategy and program would require the assembly and training of an adequate professional body of physicians and support staff in the diagnosis and treatment of hyperlipidemias.

Replacement estrogen use and body mass index

Peripheral fat is a major source of endogenous estrogens in menopausal women. To investigate whether obesity affects use of replacement estrogens in postmenopausal women, we examined the relation between body mass index and use of replacement estrogens in data from Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound, the German Cardiovascular Prevention Study, and the Cancer and Steroid Hormone (CASH) study. In each data set, there was a major decline in replacement estrogen use with higher body mass index. All data sets showed hysterectomy to be a strong predictor of replacement estrogen use. Smoking, past use of oral contraceptives and other estrogens, and ages at menarche and menopause did not appear to influence the body mass-estrogen relation. The strong and consistent association between body mass index and use of replacement estrogens in data collected at different times and in different places by different methodologies strongly suggests a common underlying biologic mechanism.

Patterns of physical activity among German adolescents: the Berlin-Bremen Study

Patterns of leisure-time physical activity among 932 West German boys and girls from two distinct socioeconomic groups were examined longitudinally over a 2-year period beginning with seventh to eighth grade students. Activity indices reflect the weekly time spent in activities, the weekly frequency of participation, and the average duration per activity episode. The indices refer to all activities, to moderate or vigorous activities, or to each individual activity. The average seventh to eighth grade student spent 10.1 hr/week engaged in all of the activities measured. Overall, the time devoted to these activities declined by 10% during the 2-year study period, with the relative decrease being larger for vigorous than for moderate activities. The decline in time spent in vigorous activity was due to a decreased frequency of participation; whereas the decline in moderate activity was primarily attributable to the decreased average duration per episode. Boys spent about 3 hr/week more in all activities than girls, with the difference largely being due to the boys' greater participation in vigorous activities. Weekly activity time among girls did not vary substantially with socioeconomic status. However, compared with boys of higher socioeconomic status, boys in the lower socioeconomic grouping were 2-3 hr/wk more active because they devoted more time to moderate activities. The results indicate that the identified activity patterns in the population strongly depend on the activity dimensions on which the measure focuses.

[Necessities and possibilities for the prevention of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases in childhood and adolescence]

In an exploratory study involving 818 pupils 12-16 years of age blood pressure, total serum cholesterol, and smoking behavior were studied. 38.3% of the boys (N = 154) and 47.3% of the girls (N = 143) aged 15-16 demonstrated singular or combined elevated risk variables, cigarette smoking being the most predominant risk factor. 44.5% of the pupils of this age group answered to be regular smokers. 59.8% (N = 183) of secondary school pupils stated to be regular smokers as compared to 15.7% (N = 166) of grammar school pupils. The most important socialpsychological process variables were attitude of friends towards smoking, smoking experience of friends, and social function of smoking within groups. The importance of these variables showed differences according to type of school as well as gender which should be taken into account modelling preventing programmes.