Knowledge and Awareness of Human Papillomavirus Vaccination and Cervical Cancer among Men and Women in Japan: A Questionnaire Survey

BACKGROUND

In many advanced countries other than Japan, the incidence and mortality rates of cervical cancer, which is mainly caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, are decreasing probably due to the high rate of HPV vaccination and cervical cancer screening. In Japan, these rates are on the rise owing to the stagnation of vaccination and low screening rate. To improve these situations, active promotion of HPV vaccination and screening is required. As a preliminary stage, we investigated perceptions regarding cervical cancer and HPV vaccines among Japanese men and women and examined the difference in perceptions by sex.

METHODS

This was a prospective cross-sectional questionnaire survey targeting Sojo University students and working adults. University students were targeted before learning about cervical cancer. Working adults were recruited on the basis of information from the Health Promotion of Health and Welfare Department of Kumamoto Prefectural Government in Japan and from companies via student organizations promoting cancer prevention. We surveyed respondents' knowledge and awareness about HPV vaccination and cervical cancer and performed logistic regression analysis to compare the results between men and women.

RESULT

A total of 557 completed questionnaires (205 men and 352 women) were analyzed. Women had high levels of knowledge and awareness about HPV vaccination and cervical cancer compared with men. However, 70% of women surveyed had never been screened for cervical cancer.

CONCLUSION

A total of 557 completed questionnaires (205 men and 352 women) were analyzed. Women had high levels of knowledge and awareness about HPV vaccination and cervical cancer compared with men. However, among surveyed women, the degree of knowledge and awareness was lower than that among women in other countries with established HPV vaccination programs. Furthermore, 70% of women surveyed had never been screened for cervical cancer.

The ability of callus tissues induced from three Allium plants to accumulate health-beneficial natural products, S-alk(en)ylcysteine sulfoxides

S-Alk(en)ylcysteine sulfoxides (CSOs), such as methiin, alliin, and isoalliin, are health-beneficial natural products biosynthesized in the genus Allium. Here, we report the induction of multiple callus tissue lines from three Allium vegetables, onion (A. cepa), Welsh onion (A. fistulosum), and Chinese chive (A. tuberosum), and their ability to accumulate CSOs. Callus tissues were initiated and maintained in the presence of picloram and 2-isopentenyladenine as auxin and cytokinin, respectively. For all plant species tested, the callus tissues almost exclusively accumulated methiin as CSO, while the intact plants contained a substantial amount of isoalliin together with methiin. These results suggest that the cellular developmental conditions and the regulatory mechanisms required for the biosynthesis of methiin are different from those of alliin and isoalliin. The methiin content in the callus tissues of onion and Welsh onion was much higher compared to that in the intact plants, and its cellular concentration could be estimated as 1.9-21.7 mM. The activity of alliinase that degrades CSOs in the callus tissues was much lower than that of the intact plants for onion and Welsh onion, but at similar levels as in the intact plants for Chinese chive. Our findings that the callus tissues of onion and Welsh onion showed high methiin content and low alliinase activity highlighted their potential as a plant-based system for methiin production.

Novel angular naphthopyrone formation by Arp1p dehydratase involved in Aspergillus fumigatus melanin biosynthesis

Conidial pigment is an important virulence factor in Aspergillus fumigatus, a human fungal pathogen. The biosynthetic gene cluster for 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN)-melanin in A. fumigatus consists of six genes, alb1, ayg1, arp1, arp2, abr1 and abr2. In contrast to black DHN-melanin fungi such as Magnaporthe grisea, the polyketide synthase Alb1p in A. fumigatus produces naphthopyrone YWA1 instead of 1,3,6,8-THN (T4HN) and YWA1 is converted to T4HN by Ayg1p. The yeast transformant expressing Alb1p and Arp1p dehydratase produced an unknown compound which was identified to be a novel angular naphthopyrone named YWA3 formed from YWA1. In addition, the amount of YWA3 produced was much more than that of YWA2 formed by non-enzymatic dehydration from YWA1. To further analyse the reaction in vitro, Arp1p was overexpressed in E. coli and purified. Kinetic analysis revealed Km value of Arp1p for YWA1 to be 41 μM which is comparable with that of Ayg1p for YWA1 in conversion to T4HN. The complex structure modelling well explained the mechanism of YWA3 generation by the dehydration of angular YWA1 by Arp1p. These results indicated the possibility that polymerization of angular naphthopyrone YWA3 but not YWA2 could be involved in the characteristic bluish-green conidial pigmentation of A. fumigatus.

Crystal structure of nafamostat dimesylate

Nafamostat dimesylate {systematic name: [amino({6-[(4-{[amino(iminiumyl)methyl]amino}phenyl)carbonyloxy]naphthalen-2-yl})methylidene]azanium bis(methanesulfonate)}, C19H19N5O2 2+·2CH3O3S-, is a broad-spectrum serine protease inhibitor and has been applied clinically as an anti-coagulant agent during hemodialysis and for treatment of severe acute pancreatitis (SAP). Since nafamostat contains flexible moieties, it is necessary to determine the conformation to understand the structure-activity relationships. The divalent cation has a screw-like motif. The guanidinium group is approximately perpendicular to the naphthyl ring system, subtending a dihedral angle of 84.30 (14)°. In the crystal, the nafamostat mol-ecules form columnar structures surrounded by a hydro-philic region.

Consistency between patients and families in recognizing cancer chemotherapy side effects: A questionnaire survey

BACKGROUND

Although the side effects of cancer chemotherapy impair a patient's quality of life, family members' awareness of side effects may relieve patient anxiety and distress.

AIM

We investigated whether patients and their families were consistent in recognizing the occurrence and severity of symptomatic side effects of chemotherapy treatment for cancer.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This was a prospective observational study. We administered a questionnaire survey to patients and family members to assess the frequency of occurrence (1: never, 2: almost never, 3: sometimes, 4: frequently, 5: almost always, 6: unknown) and the degree of severity (1: mild, 2: moderate, 3: severe, 4: extremely severe, 5: unknown) of physical and psychological symptoms associated with cancer chemotherapy. Weighted Kappa and Cramer coefficients were used to assess consistency between the two groups. We surveyed 20 pairs of patients (5 men, 15 women) and their families (10 men, 10 women); 17 pairs lived together. The median age was 65.5 years (interquartile [IQR], 58.75, 69.25) for patients and 61.00 years (IQR, 47.25, 71.25) for family members. Of patients, 17 had solid cancer, and three had leukemia. Family members mostly recognized objectively visible symptoms such as hair loss and development of spots and keratinization. However, it was difficult for families to detect invisible subjective symptoms such as weakness, dysesthesia, depressed mood, and unarticulated anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated that recognition of invisible subjective symptoms in patients undergoing chemotherapy was difficult even for family members. Therefore, a multidisciplinary approach in which various medical professionals actively communicate with both patients and families is important. Information sharing in collaboration with patients and families could increase understanding of the patient's condition and optimize patient care.

Shimalactone Biosynthesis Involves Spontaneous Double Bicyclo-Ring Formation with 8π-6π Electrocyclization

Shimalactones A and B are neuritogenic polyketides possessing characteristic oxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane and bicyclo[4.2.0]octadiene ring systems that are produced by the marine fungus Emericella variecolor GF10. We identified a candidate biosynthetic gene cluster and conducted heterologous expression analysis. Expression of ShmA polyketide synthase in Aspergillus oryzae resulted in the production of preshimalactone. Aspergillus oryzae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae transformants expressing ShmA and ShmB produced shimalactones A and B, thus suggesting that the double bicyclo-ring formation reactions proceed non-enzymatically from preshimalactone epoxide. DFT calculations strongly support the idea that oxabicyclo-ring formation and 8π-6π electrocyclization proceed spontaneously after opening of the preshimalactone epoxide ring through protonation. We confirmed the formation of preshimalactone epoxide in vitro, followed by its non-enzymatic conversion to shimalactones in the dark.

Producing the sulfur-containing metabolite asparaptine in Asparagus calluses and a suspension cell line

Asparaptine, a conjugate of L-arginine and asparagusic acid, was found in green asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) using ultrahigh-resolution metabolomics for sulfur-containing metabolites (S-metabolites), called S-omics. Asparaptine has been shown to inhibit the activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme. Larger amounts of this S-metabolite are therefore required for further analysis; however, there are limitations that asparagus is a perennial plant and its spears, wherein asparaptine accumulates, can be mainly harvested at the spring to summer season. In order to overcome these, we prepared a callus and suspension cell line from green asparagus. Untargeted metabolome analysis using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was performed in the materials as well as spears and three calluses derived from wild type Asparagus. The analysis demonstrated that the amount of asparaptine in the callus derived from the green asparagus was more than the others per mg dry weight. The suspension cell line treated with methyljasmonate showed the induction of asparaptine, suggesting that the asparaptine production is modifiable under appropriate culture conditions. The described materials can be utilized for the production of asparaptine and in integrated metabolomics to study the biosynthesis of this S-metabolite, which is currently unknown.

Functional expression of a highly-reducing polyketide synthase of Emericella variecolor IFM42010, an asteltoxin-producing strain, resulted in production of two polyenoic β-ketolactones with opposite stereochemistry

The asteltoxin-producing fungus Emericella variecolor IFM42010 possesses 22 highly-reducing polyketide synthase (HR-PKS) genes. Of these, an HR-PKS with a methyltransferase domain but lacking an enoylreductase domain could be involved in the biosynthesis of asteltoxin and related compounds. From six such candidate HR-PKS genes, Ev460pks was analyzed by gene disruption in E. variecolor and heterologous expression in Aspergillus oryzae. The Ev460pks-disrupted strain retained asteltoxin production ability, indicating that Ev460pks is not involved in asteltoxin biosynthesis. The A. oryzae transformant harboring the Ev460pks gene produced compounds 1 and 2, along with several unidentified products possibly decomposed from 2. Spectroscopic analyses revealed that 1 was a 4-methyl-β-ketolactone with a methylheptatriene side-chain at the C-5 position, and 2 was also a 4-methyl-β-ketolactone, bearing a dimethyltetradecahexaene side-chain at the same position. The relative configuration at C-4 in compounds 1 and 2 was opposite.

Field Survey of Glycyrrhiza Plants in Central Asia (5). Chemical Characterization of G. bucharica Collected in Tajikistan

One triterpene and five triterpene glycosides, including four new compounds, have been identified in the underground parts of Glycyrrhiza bucharica, which was shown to be closely related to Glycyrrhizin-producing Glycyrrhiza species, G. uralensis, G. glabra and G. inflata, based on their chloroplast rbcL sequences. Two known compounds were identified squasapogenol and macedonoside C. The structures of four new compounds, bucharosides A, B, C, and D, were determined to be 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-22-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl squasapogenol, 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-macedonic acid, 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-squasapogenol, and 22-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl squasapogenol, respectively. Contents of these triterpene glycosides were less than 0.5% of dry weight, and no main saponin, like glycyrrhizin or macedonoside C found in other Glycyrrhiza species, was found in the underground parts of G. bucharica.

Field Survey of Ephedra Plants in Central Asia (1). Characterization of Ephedra equisetina, Ephedra intermedia, and Their Putative Hybrids Collected in the Zaravshan Mountains of Tajikistan

Field surveys of Ephedra plants were conducted in the Zaravshan Mountains of Tajikistan. E. equisetina, E. intermedia, and their putative hybrids were collected. They were identified based on their phenotypes and their sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region. Sequencing and species-specific PCR analyses of their ITS1 sequences revealed six putative hybrids of E. equisetina and E. intermedia. The total ephedrine and pseudoephedrine content of most of the Ephedra samples collected in Tajikistan were higher than the 0.7% lower limit prescribed by the Japanese pharmacopoeia, 17th edition (JP17), and varied from 0.34 to 3.21% by dry weight. The total alkaloid level of E. intermedia (11E08-1) cultivated in Japan varied from 1.77 to 2.30% by dry weight, which was much higher than the 0.7% lower limit prescribed by JP17.

Crystal structures of racemic and enantiopure synephrine correlated with physicochemical properties from IR spectroscopy and thermal analysis

The proto-alkaloid synephrine {SYN; systematic name: 4-[1-hydroxy-2-(methylamino)ethyl]phenol}, C₉H₁₃NO₂, is found to crystallize as a neutral molecule in the racemate and as a zwitterion in the pure enantiomer, in which the phenolic H atom has been transferred to the amino group. In the racemate crystal, an enantiomeric pair on an inversion centre is weakly linked by alcoholic O-H and N-H groups into an R₂²(10) ring. The trigonal pyramidal amino group is also linked to the phenolic and alcoholic groups to form a C(6) chain. In the enantiopure crystal, the deprotonated phenolic O atom is involved in trifurcated hydrogen bonding to two quaternary ammonium groups and an alcoholic O-H group to form a fused R₂⁴(11) ring and a C(7) chain. From the results of the crystal structure analysis, thermal analyses and DFT calculations validated from FT-IR spectra, a different tautomer was found in the racemic molecule (RS-SYN) versus the enantiopure molecule (R-SYN).

pH-dependent production of himeic acid A and its non-enzymatic conversions to himeic acids B and C

The fungus Aspergillus japonicus MF275 produces himeic acid A (1), containing a 4-pyrone ring, along with its congeners, himeic acids B (2) and C (3). During culture, 1 was gradually converted to 3, the corresponding 4-pyridone derivative. A study of the relationship between the culture pH and the fungal metabolites showed that a decrease from pH 6.5 to pH 2 is essential for production of 1, while a subsequent increase to pH 5 is necessary for production of 3. In addition, we revealed that 1 was non-enzymatically converted to 3 by the incorporation of an ammonium nitrogen atom in a pH 5 buffer, and that 1 was converted to 2 at a conversion ratio of 50% during incubation in MeOH for five days.

A novel polysaccharide derived from algae extract inhibits cancer progression via JNK, not via the p38 MAPK signaling pathway

Cancer has long been one of the most malignant diseases worldwide. Processes in cancer cells are often mediated by Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and other signaling pathways. Traditional therapies are often problematic. Recently, a novel polysaccharide derived from algae extract was investigated due to the increasing interest in biological activities of compounds from marine organisms. The effect of this novel polysaccharide on human MKN45 gastric carcinoma cells was determined previously. The current aimed to determine whether the polysaccharide affects other types of cancer, and the deeper mechanisms involved in the process. Human MCF-7 breast cancer cells were used to investigate the novel polysaccharide for its role in the cell growth and migration, and determine the mechanisms affected. MTT assay, nuclear staining and fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis demonstrated that the novel polysaccharide reduced the viability of MCF-7 cells by inducing cell apoptosis and arresting the cells at G2/M phase. Results of western blot analysis demonstrated that phosphorylation of JNK and expression of p53, caspase-9 and caspase-3 were upregulated in the polysaccharide-treated MCF-7 cells. SP600125, an inhibitor of JNK, maintained MCF-7 cell viability, prevented cell apoptosis and cycle arrest, and downregulated the polysaccharide-induced protein phosphorylation/expression. However, a migration assay demonstrated that the novel polysaccharide did not change the migration of MCF-7 cells, as well as the expression of p38 MAPK, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 and -2. Taken together, the current study demonstrated that the novel polysaccharide suppressed cancer cell growth, induced cancer cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest via JNK signaling, but had no effect on cancer cell migration and p38 MAPK signaling.

Identification of the Biosynthetic Gene Cluster for Himeic Acid A: A Ubiquitin-Activating Enzyme (E1) Inhibitor in Aspergillus japonicus MF275

Himeic acid A, which is produced by the marine fungus Aspergillus japonicus MF275, is a specific inhibitor of the ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1 in the ubiquitin-proteasome system. To elucidate the mechanism of himeic acid biosynthesis, feeding experiments with labeled precursors have been performed. The long fatty acyl side chain attached to the pyrone ring is of polyketide origin, whereas the amide substituent is derived from leucine. These results suggest that a polyketide synthase-nonribosomal peptide synthase (PKS-NRPS) is involved in himeic acid biosynthesis. A candidate gene cluster was selected from the results of genome sequencing analysis. Disruption of the PKS-NRPS gene by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation confirms that HimA PKS-NRPS is involved in himeic acid biosynthesis. Thus, the him biosynthetic gene cluster for himeic acid in A. japonicus MF275 has been identified.

Crystal structure of (1S,2R)-2-hy-droxy-1,2-di-phenyl-ethan-1-aminium (S)-2-aza-niumyl-butane-dioate monohydrate

The title diastereomeric salt, formed between 2-amino-1,2-di-phenyl-ethanol (ADE) and aspartic acid (ASP), C14H16NO+·C4H6NO4-·H2O, crystallizes as a monohydrate. The 1,2-di-phenyl-ethyl group in the cation has a cis conformation, and the aspartic acid anion is in the zwitterionic form. In the crystal, the ASP anions are linked via N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds to form a 21 helix along the b-axis direction. The helices are linked by the ADE cations via O-H⋯O and N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming layers parallel to the bc plane. There are channels in the layers that are occupied by water mol-ecules, which link to both the anions and cations via Owater-H⋯O and N-H⋯Owater hydrogen bonds. There are also C-H⋯O and C-H⋯π inter-actions present within the layers.

Receptor clustering and activation by multivalent interaction through recognition peptides presented on exosomes

We demonstrate a novel system for inducing clustering of cell surface receptors via recognition peptide segments displayed on exosomes, leading to receptor activation. With this system, targeting of receptor-expressing cells and facilitation of the endocytic uptake of exosomes, which contained the anti-cancer protein saporin, were successfully achieved, leading to cell death.

Functional validation and expression analysis of myotubes converted from skin fibroblasts using a simple direct reprogramming strategy

Previously, we reported that MyoD, a master gene for myogenic cells, could efficiently convert primary skin fibroblasts into myoblasts and myotubes, thereby effecting direct reprogramming. In this study, we further demonstrated that MyoD-expressing primary fibroblasts displayed rapid movement in culture, with a movement velocity that was significantly faster, almost four times, than mouse primary myoblasts. MyoD-transduced cells obtained the characteristics of Ca^2 + release and electrically-stimulated contraction, which was comparable to C2C12 myotubes, suggesting that the essential features of muscle were observed in the transduced cells. Furthermore, the ability to fuse to the host myoblasts means that gene transfer from MyoD-transduced cells to host muscle cells could be obtained by cell fusion. In comparison with the iPS method (indirect reprogramming), our transduction method has a low risk for tumorigenesis and carcinogenesis because the starting cells are fibroblasts and the transduced cells are myoblasts, both normal and mortal cells. Accordingly, MyoD transduction of human skin fibroblasts using the adenoviral vector is a simple, inexpensive and promising candidate as a new cell transplantation therapy for patients with muscular disorders.

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Adenoviral MyoD vector transduced fibroblasts directly to myoblasts.

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Myoblast cells were well differentiated into functional muscle cells.

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Direct reprogramming is cost-effective and safe compared to iPS method.

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Cell fusion and high motility were observed in MyoD-transduced cells.

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Transduced cells are candidates for cell transplantation in muscle disorders.

(S)-2-Azaniumyl-2-methyl-3-phenylpropanoate monohydrate

The title compound, C10H13NO2·H2O, crystallizes in a zwitterionic form as a monohydrate, involving the propylbenzene group with atransconformation. It is a non-natural amino acid, and has attracted attention as an inhibitor of phenylalanine hydroxylase. In the crystal, molecules are linked by N—H...O hydrogen bonds, formingC(5) chains along thec-axis direction. Two chains are linked by another N—H...O hydrogen bond, forming anR33(11) ring motif. Further O—H...O hydrogen bonds link these motifsviathe water molecules, to form a three-dimensional framework.

Reconstitution of biosynthetic machinery of fungal polyketides: unexpected oxidations of biosynthetic intermediates by expression host

Reconstitution of whole biosynthetic genes in Aspergillus oryzae has successfully applied for total biosynthesis of various fungal natural products. Heterologous production of fungal metabolites sometimes suffers unexpected side reactions by host enzymes. In the studies on fungal polyketides solanapyrone and cytochalasin, unexpected oxidations of terminal olefin of biosynthetic intermediates were found to give one and four by-products by host enzymes of the transformants harboring biosynthetic genes. In this paper, we reported structure determination of by-products and described a simple solution to avoid the undesired reaction by introducing the downstream gene in the heterologous production of solanapyrone C.

Crystal structure of racemic cis-2-amino-1,2-di-phenyl-ethanol (ADE)

In the title racemic compound, C14H15NO, the hy-droxy and amino groups form a bent tweezer-like motif towards the phenyl groups. In the crystal, enanti-omers aggregate with each other and are linked by O-H⋯N hydrogen bonds, forming chiral 21-helical columnar structures from C(5) chains along the b-axis direction. Left- and right-handed 21 helices are formed from (1S,2R)-2-amino-1,2-di-phenyl-ethanol and (1R,2S)-2-amino-1,2-di-phenyl-ethanol, respectively.

Crystal structure of (S)-2-amino-2-methyl-succinic acid

The title compound, C5H9NO4, crystallized as a zwitterion. There is an intra-molecular N-H⋯O hydrogen bond involving the trans-succinic acid and the ammonium group, forming an S(6) ring motif. In the crystal, mol-ecules are linked by O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming C(7) chains along the c-axis direction. The chains are linked by N-H⋯O and C-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming sheets parallel to the bc plane. Further N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds link the sheets to form a three-dimensional framework.

Product identification of non-reducing polyketide synthases with C-terminus methyltransferase domain from Talaromyces stipitatus using Aspergillus oryzae heterologous expression

Talaromyces stipitatus ATCC 10500 possesses 17 non-reducing polyketide synthase (NR-PKS) genes. During the course of our functional analysis of PKS genes with a C-terminus methyltransferase domain from T. stipitatus, we expressed tspks2, tspks3 and tspks4 genes in the heterologous host Aspergillus oryzae, respectively. Although the tspks4 transformant gave no apparent product in HPLC analysis, a novel azaphilone pentaketide (3) was identified along with two known related products from the tspks2 transformant. Of four hexaketide products from the tspks3 transformant, two new compounds were identified to be 2-acetyl-7-methyl-3,6,8-trihydroxynaphthalene (4) and its derivative fused with α-methyl-α,β-unsaturated γ-lactone (7).

Structural basis for the formation of acylalkylpyrones from two β-ketoacyl units by the fungal type III polyketide synthase CsyB

The acylalkylpyrone synthase CsyB from Aspergillus oryzae catalyzes the one-pot formation of the 3-acyl-4-hydroxy-6-alkyl-α-pyrone scaffold from acetoacetyl-CoA, fatty acyl-CoA, and malonyl-CoA. This is the first type III polyketide synthase that performs not only the polyketide chain elongation but also the condensation of two β-ketoacyl units. The crystal structures of wild-type CsyB and its I375F and I375W mutants were solved at 1.7-, 2.3-, and 2.0-Å resolutions, respectively. The crystal structures revealed a unique active site architecture featuring a hitherto unidentified novel pocket for accommodation of the acetoacetyl-CoA starter in addition to the conventional elongation/cyclization pocket with the Cys-His-Asn catalytic triad and the long hydrophobic tunnel for binding the fatty acyl chain. The structures also indicated the presence of a putative nucleophilic water molecule activated by the hydrogen bond networks with His-377 and Cys-155 at the active site center. Furthermore, an in vitro enzyme reaction confirmed that the (18)O atom of the H2(18)O molecule is enzymatically incorporated into the final product. These observations suggested that the enzyme reaction is initiated by the loading of acetoacetyl-CoA onto Cys-155, and subsequent thioester bond cleavage by the nucleophilic water generates the β-keto acid intermediate, which is placed within the novel pocket. The second β-ketoacyl unit is then produced by polyketide chain elongation of fatty acyl-CoA with one molecule of malonyl-CoA, and the condensation with the β-keto acid generates the final products. Indeed, steric modulation of the novel pocket by the structure-based I375F and I375W mutations resulted in altered specificities for the chain lengths of the substrates.

Isoliquiritigenin is a potent inhibitor of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and diet-induced adipose tissue inflammation

Inflammasome activation initiates the development of many inflammatory diseases, including obesity and type 2 diabetes. Therefore, agents that target discrete activation steps could represent very important drugs. We reported previously that ILG, a chalcone from Glycyrrhiza uralensis, inhibits LPS-induced NF-κB activation. Here, we show that ILG potently inhibits the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, and the effect is independent of its inhibitory potency on TLR4. The inhibitory effect of ILG was stronger than that of parthenolide, a known inhibitor of the NLRP3 inflammasome. GL, a triterpenoid from G. uralensis, had similar inhibitory effects on NLRP3 activity, but high concentrations of GL were required. In contrast, activation of the AIM2 inflammasome was inhibited by GL but not by ILG. Moreover, GL inhibited NLRP3- and AIM2-activated ASC oligomerization, whereas ILG inhibited NLRP3-activated ASC oligomerization. Low concentrations of ILG were highly effective in IAPP-induced IL-1β production compared with the sulfonylurea drug glyburide. In vivo analyses revealed that ILG potently attenuated HFD-induced obesity, hypercholesterolemia, and insulin resistance. Furthermore, ILG treatment improved HFD-induced macrovesicular steatosis in the liver. Finally, ILG markedly inhibited diet-induced adipose tissue inflammation and IL-1β and caspase-1 production in white adipose tissue in ex vivo culture. These results suggest that ILG is a potential drug target for treatment of NLRP3 inflammasome-associated inflammatory diseases.

Aspergillus oryzae CsyB catalyzes the condensation of two β-ketoacyl-CoAs to form 3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-alkyl-α-pyrone

The type III polyketide synthases from fungi produce a variety of secondary metabolites including pyrones, resorcinols, and resorcylic acids. We previously reported that CsyB from Aspergillus oryzae forms α-pyrone csypyrone B compounds when expressed in A. oryzae. Feeding experiments of labeled acetates indicated that a fatty acyl starter is involved in the reaction catalyzed by CsyB. Here we report the in vivo and in vitro reconstitution analysis of CsyB. When CsyB was expressed in Escherichia coli, we observed the production of 3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-α-pyrones with saturated or unsaturated straight aliphatic chains of C9-C17 in length at the 6 position. Subsequent in vitro analysis using recombinant CsyB revealed that CsyB could accept butyryl-CoA as a starter substrate and malonyl-CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA as extender substrates to form 3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-propyl-α-pyrone. CsyB also afforded dehydroacetic acid from two molecules of acetoacetyl-CoA. Furthermore, synthetic N-acetylcysteamine thioester of β-ketohexanoic acid was converted to 3-butanoyl-4-hydroxy-6-propyl-α-pyrone by CsyB. These results therefore confirmed that CsyB catalyzed the synthesis of β-ketoacyl-CoA from the reaction of the starter fatty acyl CoA thioesters with malonyl-CoA as the extender through decarboxylative condensation and further coupling with acetoacetyl-CoA to form 3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-alkyl-α-pyrone. CsyB is the first type III polyketide synthase that synthesizes 3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-alkyl-α-pyrone by catalyzed the coupling of two β-ketoacyl-CoAs.

Expression, purification and crystallization of a fungal type III polyketide synthase that produces the csypyrones

CsyB from Aspergillus oryzae is a novel type III polyketide synthase that catalyzes the formation of csypyrone B1 [4-(3-acetyl-4-hydroxy-2-oxo-2H-pyran-6-yl)butyric acid] from fatty acyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA. Recombinant CsyB expressed in Escherichia coli was crystallized by the sitting-drop vapour-diffusion method. The crystals belonged to space P2₁, with unit-cell parameters a=70.0, b=104.8, c=73.5 Å, β=114.4°.

Characterization of a glycyrrhizin-deficient strain of Glycyrrhiza uralensis

A triterpene saponin, glucoglycyrrhizin, was isolated from a glycyrrhizin-deficient strain 83-555 of Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Leguminosae), and the structure was determined by chemical and spectral data to be 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl]-glycyrrhetinic acid. Since this saponin has a 2'-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl moiety instead of the 2'-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl moiety of glycyrrhizin, the glucuronidation of 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-glycyrrhetinic acid leading to glycyrrhizin is inhibited in this strain. All 4 offspring of the 83-555 strain produced glucoglycyrrhizin. Interestingly, 2 of the offspring produced both glycyrrhizin and glucoglycyrrhizin, and sequence analysis of the pkr gene suggested that these 2 offspring were hybrids of 83-555 strain and glycyrrhizin-producing strains.

Structurally diverse chaetophenol productions induced by chemically mediated epigenetic manipulation of fungal gene expression

Epigenetic manipulation of gene expression in Chaetomium indicum using a HDAC inhibitor led to the isolation of structurally diverse chaetophenols, and 3, 4 and 5 bear unprecedented polycyclic skeletons. The expression of two silent genes (pksCH-1 and pksCH-2) for nonreducing PKSs involved in chaetophenol biosynthesis was associated with an increase of histone acetylation level. The heterologous gene expression study in Aspergillus oryzae revealed pksCH-2 to be the NR-PKS gene for 8.

Reconstitution of a secondary metabolite biosynthetic pathway in a heterologous fungal host

Expression of multiple genes involved in a particular metabolic pathway in a heterologous host facilitates the study of fungal secondary metabolite biosynthesis and production of useful compounds. Two plasmids with different selection markers, argB and the pyrithiamine resistance marker, are used to transform Aspergillus oryzae allowing for expression of up to three genes simultaneously.

SREBP-1 transcription factors regulate skeletal muscle cell size by controlling protein synthesis through myogenic regulatory factors

SREBP-1 are ubiquitously expressed transcription factors, strongly expressed in lipogenic tissues where they regulate several metabolic processes like fatty acid synthesis. In skeletal muscle, SREBP-1 proteins regulate the expression of hundreds of genes, and we previously showed that their overexpression induced muscle atrophy together with a combined lack of expression of myogenic regulatory factors. Here we present evidences that SREBP-1 regulate muscle protein synthesis through the downregulation of the expression of MYOD1, MYOG and MEF2C factors. In myotubes overexpressing SREBP-1, restoring the expression of myogenic factors prevented atrophy and rescued protein synthesis, without affecting SREBP-1 action on atrogenes and proteolysis. Our results point out the roles of MRFs in the maintenance of the protein content and cell size in adult muscle fibre, and contribute to decipher the mechanisms by which SREBP-1 regulate muscle mass.

Glycyrrhizin and isoliquiritigenin suppress the LPS sensor toll-like receptor 4/MD-2 complex signaling in a different manner

Recent evidences suggest that the extracts of plant products are able to modulate innate immune responses. A saponin GL and a chalcone ILG are representative components of Glycyrrhiza uralensis, which attenuate inflammatory responses mediated by TLRs. Here, we show that GL and ILG suppress different steps of the LPS sensor TLR4/MD-2 complex signaling at the receptor level. Extract of G. uralensis suppressed IL-6 and TNF-α production induced by lipid A moiety of LPS in RAW264.7 cells. Among various G. uralensis-related components of saponins and flavanones/chalcones, GL and ILG could suppress IL-6 production induced by lipid A in dose-dependent manners in RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, elevation of plasma TNF-α in LPS-injected mice was attenuated by passive administration of GL or ILG. GL and ILG inhibited lipid A-induced NF-κB activation in Ba/F3 cells expressing TLR4/MD-2 and CD14 and BMMs. These components also inhibited activation of MAPKs, including JNK, p38, and ERK in BMMs. In addition, GL and ILG inhibited NF-κB activation and IL-6 production induced by paclitaxel, a nonbacterial TLR4 ligand. Interestingly, GL attenuated the formation of the LPS-TLR4/MD-2 complexes, resulting in inhibition of homodimerization of TLR4. Although ILG did not affect LPS binding to TLR4/MD-2, it could inhibit LPS-induced TLR4 homodimerization. These results imply that GL and ILG modulate the TLR4/MD-2 complex at the receptor level, leading to suppress LPS-induced activation of signaling cascades and cytokine production, but their effects are exerted at different steps of TLR4/MD-2 signaling.

A novel polysaccharide compound derived from algae extracts protects retinal pigment epithelial cells from high glucose-induced oxidative damage in vitro

Diabetic retinopathy is a common complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). The oxidative damage inflicted on retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells by high glucose closely approximates the molecular basis for the loss of vision associated with this disease. We investigate a novel algae-derived polysaccharide compound for its role in protecting ARPE-19 cells from high glucose-induced oxidative damage. ARPE-19 cells were cultured for 4 d with normal concentration of D-glucose, and exposed to either normal or high concentrations of D-glucose in the presence or absence of the polysaccharide compound at variety of concentrations for another 48 h. Taurine was used as a positive control. Activity of super oxide dismutase (SOD) and concentration of glutathione (GSH) were measured as well as cytotoxicity of high glucose and the polysaccharide compound. To analyse cellular damage by high glucose, activation of Annexin V and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) were examined. Our results showed that a significant cellular damage on ARPE-19 cells after 48 h treatment with high glucose, accompanied by a decrease in SOD activity and GSH concentration; high glucose also caused ARPE-19 cell apoptosis and activation of p38MAPK and ERK. As the non-toxic polysaccharide compound protected ARPE-19 cells from high glucose-induced cellular damage, the compound recovered SOD activity and concentration of GSH in the cells. The compound also abrogated the cell apoptosis and activation of p38MAPK and ERK. Therefore, the polysaccharide compound derived from algae extracts could be unique candidate for a new class of anti-DM and anti-oxidative damage.

3-{[(Benzyloxy)carbonyl]amino}butanoic acid

In the title compound, C₁₂H₁₅NO₄, the butyric acid group has a stretched trans conformation. The dihedral angle between the phenyl ring and the oxycarb­oxy­amino N—(C=O)—O—C plane is 56.6 (2)°. In the crystal, an inversion dimer is formed by a pair of O—H⋯O hydrogen bonds. The dimers are further linked by N—H⋯O hydrogen bonds between amide groups, forming a tape along the b axis.

Exon-skipping events in candidates for clinical trials of morpholino

BACKGROUND

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) are caused by abnormalities in the DMD gene. The majority of DMD patients have out-of-frame deletion(s), which disrupt the reading frame; while some cases of DMD are caused by duplication or nonsense mutation(s). Most patients with BMD have in-frame deletion(s), which preserve the reading frame. The phenotype of BMD is generally milder than that of DMD. Antisense morpholino-mediated exon skipping, which changes out-of-frame deletions to in-frame deletions, is a promising therapeutic approach for DMD. It is necessary, however, to confirm the exon-skipping event in cells of DMD patients before the clinical trial.

METHODS

Fibroblasts isolated from four DMD patients were induced to differentiate into the myogenic lineage by infection with Ad.CAGMyoD. The cells were then transfected with two types of morpholino. The exon-skipping event was analyzed on reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Morpholino B30, which is located at the splicing enhancer of exon 51 of the DMD gene, yielded the desired exon 51-skipping event in all deletion patterns of cells tested. Morpholino I25, which is located at the exon donor, induced two different exon-skipping patterns, which are total or partial exon 51-skipping events. According to the sequence analysis, the unexpected unskipped regions were the 95 bp section and the 188 bp section of exon 51, showing that the cryptic splicing donor was newly produced with I25. Unfortunately, these cryptic splicing donors gave rise to out-of-frame patterns. Based on these in vitro results, B30 would presumably be an effective therapy. Interestingly, the cocktail of B30 and I25 appeared to yield a more efficient exon 51-skipping event.

CONCLUSION

An in vitro system was developed that could easily screen the effectiveness of antisense sequences and identify good candidates for therapy with morpholino.

Convergent strategies in biosynthesis

This review article focuses on how nature sometimes solves the same problem in the biosynthesis of small molecules but using very different approaches. Four examples, involving isopentenyl diphosphate, menaquinone, lysine, and aromatic polyketides, are highlighted that represent different strategies in convergent metabolism.