Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) Nk-lysin induces protection against the pathogenic parasite Philasterides dicentrarchi via membrane disruption

P. dicentrarchi is one of the most threatening pathogens for turbot aquaculture. This protozoan ciliate is a causative agent of scuticociliatosis, which is a disease with important economic consequences for the sector. Neither vaccines nor therapeutic treatments are commercially available to combat this infection. Numerous antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have demonstrated broad-spectrum activity against bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites and even tumor cells; an example is Nk-lysin (Nkl), which is an AMP belonging to the saposin-like protein (SAPLIP) family with an ability to interact with biological membranes. Following the recent characterization of turbot Nkl, an expression plasmid encoding Nkl was constructed and an anti-Nkl polyclonal antibody was successfully tested. Using these tools, we demonstrated that although infection did not clearly affect nkl mRNA expression, it induced changes at the protein level. Turbot Nkl had the ability to inhibit proliferation of the P. dicentrarchi parasite both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, a shortened peptide containing the active core of turbot Nkl (Nkl71-100) was synthesized and showed high antiparasitic activity with a direct effect on parasite viability that probably occurred via membrane disruption. Therefore, the nkl gene may be a good candidate for genetic breeding selection of fish, and either the encoded peptide or its shortened analog is a promising antiparasitic treatment in aquaculture.

Contribution of ion binding affinity to ion selectivity and permeation in KcsA, a model potassium channel

Ion permeation and selectivity, key features in ion channel function, are believed to arise from a complex ensemble of energetic and kinetic variables. Here we evaluate the contribution of pore cation binding to ion permeation and selectivity features of KcsA, a model potassium channel. For this, we used E71A and M96V KcsA mutants in which the equilibrium between conductive and nonconductive conformations of the channel is differently shifted. E71A KcsA is a noninactivating channel mutant. Binding of K(+) to this mutant reveals a single set of low-affinity K(+) binding sites, similar to that seen in the binding of K(+) to wild-type KcsA that produces a conductive, low-affinity complex. This seems consistent with the observed K(+) permeation in E71A. Nonetheless, the E71A mutant retains K(+) selectivity, which cannot be explained on the basis of just its low affinity for this ion. At variance, M96V KcsA is a rapidly inactivating mutant that has lost selectivity for K(+) and also conducts Na(+). Here, low-affinity binding and high-affinity binding of both cations are detected, seemingly in agreement with both being permeating species in this mutant channel. In conclusion, binding of the ion to the channel protein seemingly explains certain gating, ion selectivity, and permeation properties. Ion binding stabilizes greatly the channel and, depending upon ion type and concentration, leads to different conformations and ion binding affinities. High-affinity states guarantee binding of specific ions and mediate ion selectivity but are nonconductive. Conversely, low-affinity states would not discriminate well among different ions but allow permeation to occur.

Ion binding to KcsA: implications in ion selectivity and channel gating

Binding of K+ and Na+ to the potassium channel KcsA has been characterized from the stabilization observed in the heat-induced denaturation of the protein as the ion concentration is increased. KcsA thermal denaturation is known to include (i) dissociation of the homotetrameric channel into its constituent subunits and (ii) protein unfolding. The ion concentration-dependent changes in the thermal stability of the protein, evaluated as the Tm value for thermal-induced denaturation of the protein, may suggest the existence of both high- and low-affinity K+ binding sites of KcsA, which lend support to the tenet that channel gating may be governed by K+ concentration-dependent transitions between different affinity states of the channel selectivity filter. We also found that Na+ binds to KcsA with a KD similar to that estimated electrophysiologically from channel blockade. Therefore, our findings on ion binding to KcsA partly account for K+ over Na+ selectivity and Na+ blockade and argue against the strict “snug fit” hypothesis used initially to explain ion selectivity from the X-ray channel structure. Furthermore, the remarkable effects of increasing the ion concentration, K+ in particular, on the Tm of the denaturation process evidence that synergistic effects of the metal-mediated intersubunit interactions at the channel selectivity filter are a major contributor to the stability of the tetrameric protein. This observation substantiates the notion of a role for ions as structural “effectors” of ion channels.

Occupancy of nonannular lipid binding sites on KcsA greatly increases the stability of the tetrameric protein

KcsA, a homotetrameric potassium channel from prokaryotes, contains noncovalently bound lipids appearing in the X-ray crystallographic structure of the protein. The binding sites for such high-affinity lipids are referred to as "nonannular" sites, correspond to intersubunit protein domains, and bind preferentially anionic phospholipids. Here we used a thermal denaturation assay and detergent-phospholipid mixed micelles containing KcsA to study the effects of different phospholipids on protein stability. We found that anionic phospholipids stabilize greatly the tetrameric protein against irreversible, heat-induced unfolding and dissociation into subunits. This occurs in a phospholipid concentration-dependent manner, and phosphatidic acid species with acyl chain lengths ranging 14 to 18 carbon atoms are more efficient than similar phosphatidylglycerols in protecting the protein. A docking model of the KcsA-phospholipid complex suggests that the increased protein stability originates from the intersubunit nature of the binding sites and, thus, interaction of the phospholipid with such sites holds together adjacent subunits within the tetrameric protein. We also found that simpler amphiphiles, such as alkyl sulfates longer than 10 carbon atoms, also increase the protein stability to the same extent as anionic phospholipids, although at higher concentrations than the latter. Modeling the interaction of these simpler amphiphiles with KcsA and comparing it with that of anionic phospholipids serve to delineate the features of a hydrophobic pocket in the nonannular sites. Such pocket is predicted to comprise residues from the M2 transmembrane segment of a subunit and from the pore helix of the adjacent subunit and seems most relevant to protein stabilization.

ADAN: a database for prediction of protein-protein interaction of modular domains mediated by linear motifs

MOTIVATION

Most of the structures and functions of proteome globular domains are yet unknown. We can use high-resolution structures from different modular domains in combination with automatic protein design algorithms to predict genome-wide potential interactions of a protein. ADAN database and related web tools are online resources for the predictive analysis of ligand-domain complexes. ADAN database is a collection of different modular protein domains (SH2, SH3, PDZ, WW, etc.). It contains 3505 entries with extensive structural and functional information available, manually integrated, curated and annotated with cross-references to other databases, biochemical and thermodynamical data, simplified coordinate files, sequence files and alignments. Prediadan, a subset of ADAN database, offers position-specific scoring matrices for protein-protein interactions, calculated by FoldX, and predictions of optimum ligands and putative binding partners. Users can also scan a query sequence against selected matrices, or improve a ligand-domain interaction.

AVAILABILITY

ADAN is accessible at http://adan-embl.ibmc.umh.es/ or http://adan.crg.es/.

Protein-promoted membrane domains

The current notion of biological membranes encompasses a very complex structure, made of dynamically changing compartments or domains where different membrane components partition. These domains have been related to important cellular functions such as membrane sorting, signal transduction, membrane fusion, neuronal maturation, and protein activation. Many reviews have dealt with membrane domains where lipid-lipid interactions direct their formation, especially in the case of raft domains, so in this review we considered domains induced by integral membrane proteins. The nature of the interactions involved and the different mechanisms through which membrane proteins segregate lipid domains are presented, in particular with regard to those induced by the nAChR. It may be concluded that coupling of favourable lipid-lipid and lipid-protein interactions is a general condition for this phenomenon to occur.

The influence of a membrane environment on the structure and stability of a prokaryotic potassium channel, KcsA

The lack of a membrane environment in membrane protein crystals is considered one of the major limiting factors to fully imply X-ray structural data to explain functional properties of ion channels [Gulbis, J.M. and Doyle, D. (2004) Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 14, 440-446]. Here, we provide infrared spectroscopic evidence that the structure and stability of the potassium channel KcsA and its chymotryptic derivative 1-125 KcsA reconstituted into native-like membranes differ from those exhibited by these proteins in detergent solution, the latter taken as an approximation of the mixed detergent-protein crystal conditions.

Influence of C-terminal protein domains and protein-lipid interactions on tetramerization and stability of the potassium channel KcsA

KcsA is a prokaryotic potassium channel formed by the assembly of four identical subunits around a central aqueous pore. Although the high-resolution X-ray structure of the transmembrane portion of KcsA is known [Doyle, D. A., Morais, C. J., Pfuetzner, R. A., Kuo, A., Gulbis, J. M., Cohen, S. L., Chait, B. T., and MacKinnon, R. (1998) Science 280, 69-77], the identification of the molecular determinant(s) involved in promoting subunit tetramerization remains to be determined. Here, C-terminal deletion channel mutants, KcsA Delta125-160 and Delta120-160, as well as 1-125 KcsA obtained from chymotrypsin cleavage of full-length 1-160 KcsA, have been used to evaluate the role of the C-terminal segment on the stability and tetrameric assembly of the channel protein. We found that the lack of the cytoplasmic C-terminal domain of KcsA, and most critically the 120-124 sequence stretch, impairs tetrameric assembly of channel subunits in a heterologous E. coli expression system. Molecular modeling of KcsA predicts that, indeed, such sequence stretch provides intersubunit interaction sites by hydrogen bonding to amino acid residues in N- and C-terminal segments of adjacent subunits. However, once the KcsA tetramer is assembled, its remarkable in vitro stability to detergent or to heat-induced dissociation into subunits is not greatly influenced by whether the entire C-terminal domain continues being part of the protein. Finally and most interestingly, it is observed that, even in the absence of the C-terminal domain involved in tetramerization, reconstitution into membrane lipids promotes in vitro KcsA tetramerization very efficiently, an event which is likely mediated by allowing proper hydrophobic interactions involving intramembrane protein domains.

Influence of C-terminal protein domains and protein-lipid interactions on tetramerization and stability of the potassium channel KcsA

KcsA is a prokaryotic potassium channel formed by the assembly of four identical subunits around a central aqueous pore. Although the high-resolution X-ray structure of the transmembrane portion of KcsA is known [Doyle, D. A., Morais, C. J., Pfuetzner, R. A., Kuo, A., Gulbis, J. M., Cohen, S. L., Chait, B. T., and MacKinnon, R. (1998) Science 280, 69-77], the identification of the molecular determinant(s) involved in promoting subunit tetramerization remains to be determined. Here, C-terminal deletion channel mutants, KcsA Delta125-160 and Delta120-160, as well as 1-125 KcsA obtained from chymotrypsin cleavage of full-length 1-160 KcsA, have been used to evaluate the role of the C-terminal segment on the stability and tetrameric assembly of the channel protein. We found that the lack of the cytoplasmic C-terminal domain of KcsA, and most critically the 120-124 sequence stretch, impairs tetrameric assembly of channel subunits in a heterologous E. coli expression system. Molecular modeling of KcsA predicts that, indeed, such sequence stretch provides intersubunit interaction sites by hydrogen bonding to amino acid residues in N- and C-terminal segments of adjacent subunits. However, once the KcsA tetramer is assembled, its remarkable in vitro stability to detergent or to heat-induced dissociation into subunits is not greatly influenced by whether the entire C-terminal domain continues being part of the protein. Finally and most interestingly, it is observed that, even in the absence of the C-terminal domain involved in tetramerization, reconstitution into membrane lipids promotes in vitro KcsA tetramerization very efficiently, an event which is likely mediated by allowing proper hydrophobic interactions involving intramembrane protein domains.

Probing the channel-bound shaker B inactivating peptide by stereoisomeric substitution at a strategic tyrosine residue

A synthetic peptide patterned after the sequence of the inactivating ball domain of the Shaker B K(+) channel, the ShB peptide, fully restores fast inactivation in the deletion Shaker BDelta6-46 K(+) channel, which lacks the constitutive ball domains. On the contrary, a similar peptide in which tyrosine 8 is substituted by the secondary structure-disrupting d-tyrosine stereoisomer does not. This suggests that the stereoisomeric substitution prevents the peptide from adopting a structured conformation when bound to the channel during inactivation. Moreover, characteristic in vitro features of the wild-type ShB peptide such as the marked propensity to adopt an intramolecular beta-hairpin structure when challenged by anionic phospholipid vesicles, a model target mimicking features of the inactivation site in the channel protein, or to insert into their hydrophobic bilayers, are lost in the d-tyrosine-containing peptide, whose behavior is practically identical to that of noninactivating peptide mutants. In the absence of high resolution crystallographic data on the inactivated channel/peptide complex, these latter findings suggest that the structured conformation required for the peptide to promote channel inactivation, as referred to above, is likely to be beta-hairpin.

Salmonid viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus: fusion-related enhancement of virus infectivity by peptides derived from viral glycoprotein G or a combinatorial library

To search for enhancers and/or inhibitors of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV, a salmonid rhabdovirus) infectivity, a total of 51 peptides from a pepscan of viral envelope protein G, a recombinant peptide from protein G (frg11) and 80 peptide mixtures from an alpha-helix-favoured combinatorial library were screened. However, contrary to what occurs in many other enveloped viruses, only peptides enhancing rather than inhibiting VHSV infectivity were found. Because some of the enhancer pepscan G peptides and frg11 were derived from phospholipid-binding or fusion-related regions identified previously, it was suggested that enhancement of virus infectivity might be related to virus-cell fusion. Furthermore, enhancement was significant only when the viral peptides were pre-incubated with VHSV at the optimal low pH of fusion, before being adjusted to physiological pH and assayed for infectivity. Enhancement of VHSV infectivity caused by the pre-incubation of VHSV with peptide p5 (SAAEASAKATAEATAKG), one of the individual enhancer peptides defined from the screening of the combinatorial library, was independent of the pre-incubation pH. However, it was also related to fusion because the binding of p5 to protein G induced VHSV to bypass the endosome pathway of infection and reduced the low-pH threshold of fusion, thus suggesting an alternative virus entry pathway for p5-VHSV complexes. Further investigations into VHSV enhancer peptides might shed some light on the mechanisms of VHSV fusion.

Tyrosine phosphorylation of the inactivating peptide of the shaker B potassium channel: a structural-functional correlate

A synthetic peptide patterned after the sequence of the inactivating "ball" domain of the Shaker B K(+) channel restores fast (N-type) inactivation in mutant deletion channels lacking their constitutive ball domains, as well as in K(+) channels that do not normally inactivate. We now report on the effect of phosphorylation at a single tyrosine in position 8 of the inactivating peptide both on its ability to restore fast channel inactivation in deletion mutant channels and on the conformation adopted by the phosphorylated peptide when challenged by anionic lipid vesicles, a model target mimicking features of the inactivation site in the channel protein. We find that the inactivating peptide phosphorylated at Y8 behaves functionally as well as structurally as the noninactivating mutant carrying the mutation L7E. Moreover, it is observed that the inactivating peptide can be phosphorylated by the Src tyrosine kinase either as a free peptide in solution or when forming part of the membrane-bound protein channel as the constitutive inactivating domain. These findings suggest that tyrosine phosphorylation-dephosphorylation of this inactivating ball domain could be of physiological relevance to rapidly interconvert fast-inactivating channels into delayed rectifiers and vice versa.

A protein G fragment from the salmonid viral hemorrhagic septicemia rhabdovirus induces cell-to-cell fusion and membrane phosphatidylserine translocation at low pH

The fusion-related properties of segments p9, p3, p4, and p9 + p2 surrounding the p2 phospholipid-binding domain of the protein G (pG) of the salmonid rhabdovirus of viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) (Nuñez, E., Fernandez, A. M., Estepa, A., Gonzalez-Ros, J. M., Gavilanes, F., and Coll, J. M. (1998) Virology 243, 322-330; Estepa, A., and Coll, J. M. (1996) Virology 216, 60-70), have been studied at neutral and fusion (low) pH values by using its derived peptides. Cell-to-cell fusion, translocation of phosphatidylserine, and inhibition of fusion of pG-transfected cells defined the p9 + p2 (fragment 11, sequence 56-110) as a fragment with higher specific activity for anionic phospholipid aggregation than the previously reported p2. While fragment 11, p2, and p3 showed interactions with anionic phospholipids, p9 and p4 showed no interactions with any phospholipids. When added to a cell monolayer model at low pH, fragment 11 induced pH-dependent cell-to-cell fusion and translocated phosphatidylserine from the inner to the outer leaflet of the membrane. At low pH and in the presence of anionic phospholipids, fragment 11 showed more than 80% beta-sheet conformation (IR and CD spectroscopies). Finally, anti-fragment 11 antibodies inhibited low pH-dependent pG-transfected cell-to-cell fusion. All of the data support the conclusion that fragment 11 is a primary determinant of some of the viral cell fusion events in VHSV.

Human p8 is a HMG-I/Y-like protein with DNA binding activity enhanced by phosphorylation

We have studied the biochemical features, the conformational preferences in solution, and the DNA binding properties of human p8 (hp8), a nucleoprotein whose expression is affected during acute pancreatitis. Biochemical studies show that hp8 has properties of the high mobility group proteins, HMG-I/Y. Structural studies have been carried out by using circular dichroism (near- and far-ultraviolet), Fourier transform infrared, and NMR spectroscopies. All the biophysical probes indicate that hp8 is monomeric (up to 1 mm concentration) and partially unfolded in solution. The protein seems to bind DNA weakly, as shown by electrophoretic gel shift studies. On the other hand, hp8 is a substrate for protein kinase A (PKA). The phosphorylated hp8 (PKAhp8) has a higher content of secondary structure than the nonphosphorylated protein, as concluded by Fourier transform infrared studies. PKAhp8 binds DNA strongly, as shown by the changes in circular dichroism spectra, and gel shift analysis. Thus, although there is not a high sequence homology with HMG-I/Y proteins, hp8 can be considered as a HMG-I/Y-like protein.

Effect of the inactivating "ball" peptide of Shaker B on intermediate conductance Ca(2+)-dependent inwardly rectifying K+ channels of HeLa cells

The patch-clamp technique was used to study the effect of intracellularly added inactivating "ball" peptide (BP) of the Shaker B K+ channel upon Ca(2+)-dependent inwardly rectifying K+ channels of the intermediate conductance type expressed in HeLa cells. Intracellular BP caused only moderate inhibition of outward K+ currents when assayed at an intracellular Ca2+ concentration of 100 nmol/l. Increasing intracellular Ca2+ levels led in itself to some voltage-dependent blockade of K+ currents, which was absent when high extracellular K+ was used. An additional strong blockade by intracellular BP was nevertheless observed both in Na(+)- and K(+)-rich extracellular solutions. A non-inactivating BP analogue had no effect. At this higher intracellular Ca2+ concentration the inhibition of these intermediate conductance Ca(2+)-dependent channels by BP was voltage-dependent, being absent at hyperpolarizing potentials, and could be relieved by increasing extracellular K+. These data suggest that BP acts at an internal pore site in Ca(2+)-dependent intermediate conductance K+ channels of HeLa cells, and that these might possess a receptor site for the peptide similar to that of other K+ channels such as Ca(2+)-activated maxi-K+ channels.

Structural stabilization of botulinum neurotoxins by tyrosine phosphorylation

Tyrosine phosphorylation of botulinum neurotoxins augments their proteolytic activity and thermal stability, suggesting a substantial modification of the global protein conformation. We used Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to study changes of secondary structure and thermostability of tyrosine phosphorylated botulinum neurotoxins A (BoNT A) and E (BoNT E). Changes in the conformationally-sensitive amide I band upon phosphorylation indicated an increase of the alpha-helical content with a concomitant decrease of less ordered structures such as turns and random coils, and without changes in beta-sheet content. These changes in secondary structure were accompanied by an increase in the residual amide II absorbance band remaining upon H-D exchange, consistent with a tighter packing of the phosphorylated proteins. FTIR and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses of the denaturation process show that phosphorylated neurotoxins denature at temperatures higher than those required by non-phosphorylated species. These findings indicate that tyrosine phosphorylation induced a transition to higher order and that the more compact structure presumably imparts to the phosphorylated neurotoxins the higher catalytic activity and thermostability.

Inactivating peptide of the Shaker B potassium channel: conformational preferences inferred from studies on simple model systems

Previous studies on the interaction between the inactivating peptide of the Shaker B K+ channel (ShB peptide, H2N-MAAVAGLYGLGEDRQHRKKQ) and anionic phospholipid vesicles, used as model targets, have shown that the ShB peptide: (i) binds to the vesicle surface with high affinity; (ii) readily adopts a strongly hydrogen-bonded beta-structure; and (iii) becomes inserted into the hydrophobic bilayer. We now report fluorescence studies showing that the vesicle-inserted ShB peptide is in a monomeric form and, therefore, the observed beta-structure must be intramolecularly hydrogen-bonded to produce a beta-hairpin conformation. Also, additional freeze-fracture and accessibility-to-trypsin studies, which aimed to estimate how deeply and in which orientation the folded monomeric peptide inserts into the model target, have allowed us to build structural models for the target-inserted peptide. In such models, the peptide has been folded near G6 to configure a long beta-hairpin modelled to produce an internal cancellation of net charges in the stretch comprising amino acids 1-16. As to the positively charged C-terminal portion of the ShB peptide (RKKQ), this has been modelled to be in parallel with the anionic membrane surface to facilitate electrostatic interactions. Since the negatively charged surface and the hydrophobic domains in the model vesicle target may partly imitate those present at the inactivation 'entrance' in the channel protein [Kukuljan, M., Labarca, P. and Latorre, R. (1995) Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 268, C535-C556], we believe that the structural models postulated here for the vesicle-inserted peptide could help to understand how the ShB peptide associates with the channel during inactivation and why mutations at specific sites in the ShB peptide sequence, such as that in the ShB-L7E peptide, result in non-inactivating peptide variants.

Structural properties of the putative fusion peptide of hepatitis B virus upon interaction with phospholipids. Circular dichroism and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy studies

A peptide corresponding to the N-terminal sequence of the S protein from hepatitis B virus (Met-Glu-Asn-Ile-Thr-Ser-Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-Pro-Leu-Leu-Val-Leu-Gln) has been previously shown to interact with phospholipids and promote vesicle aggregation, phospholipid mixing, and liposome leakage, as well as erythrocyte lysis [Rodríguez-Crespo, I., Núñez, E., Gómez-Gutiérrez, J., Yélamos, B., Albar, J. P., Peterson, D. L. & Gavilanes, F. (1995) J. Gen. Virol. 76, 301-308]. The conformation of this putative fusion peptide has been studied, both at low and high peptide concentrations, by means of circular dichroism and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, respectively. When the peptide is dissolved in trifluoroethanol, a significant population of alpha-helical structure is found in spite of the proline residue at position 11. In contrast, this hydrophobic oligopeptide has a high tendency to form large beta-sheet aggregates in aqueous buffers. Most of these aggregates can be eliminated by centrifugation. The peptide remaining in the supernatant adopts a non-ordered conformation. The aggregates can be dissociated by the anionic detergent sodium cholate, but the peptide still maintains an extended conformation. In the presence of acidic phospholipid vesicles, the putative fusion peptide adopts a highly stable beta-sheet conformation. Thus, unlike the fusion peptides of other viruses, an extended conformation seems to be the preferred structure when interacting with phospholipids. Such a conformation should be responsible for its membrane destabilization properties.

Synthesis of a photoaffinity labeling analogue of the inactivating peptide of the Shaker B potassium channel

A photoactivatable derivative of the inactivating peptide of the Shaker B potassium channel (ShB peptide) has been synthesized from ShB peptide containing an added cysteine residue at the peptide carboxy-terminus and 1-(p-azidosalicylamido)-4-(iodoacetamido)butane. The peptide derivative restores rapid inactivation in the deletion mutant Shaker Bdelta6-46 potassium channel in a manner indistinguishable from that of the wild-type ShB peptide. Also, both peptides display similar conformational behavior when challenged in vitro by an artificial model target that partly imitates the properties of the putative receptor site for the inactivating peptide in the Shaker B potassium channel. Therefore, we conclude that both functionally and conformationally the photoreactive peptide derivative is an adequate analogue of the wild-type ShB peptide, suitable for photoaffinity labeling of its binding site in the Shaker B potassium channel. Moreover, because the ShB peptide also serves as an efficient inactivating peptide for a large variety of other potassium channels, it appears that the photoreactive analogue may be useful to explore homologous sites in many different channel proteins.

Interaction between ion channel-inactivating peptides and anionic phospholipid vesicles as model targets

Studies of rapid (N-type) inactivation induced by different synthetic inactivating peptides in several voltage-dependent cation channels have concluded that the channel inactivation "entrance" (or "receptor" site for the inactivating peptide) consists of a hydrophobic vestibule within the internal mouth of the channel, separated from the cytoplasm by a region with a negative surface potential. These protein domains are conformed from alternative sequences in the different channels and thus are relatively unrestricted in terms of primary structure. We are reporting here on the interaction between the inactivating peptide of the Shaker B K+ channel (ShB peptide) or the noninactivating ShB-L7E mutant with anionic phospholipid vesicles, a model target that, as the channel's inactivation "entrance," contains a hydrophobic domain (the vesicle bilayer) separated from the aqueous media by a negatively charged vesicle surface. When challenged by the anionic phospholipid vesicles, the inactivating ShB peptide 1) binds to the vesicle surface with a relatively high affinity, 2) readily adopts a strongly hydrogen-bonded beta-structure, likely an intramolecular beta "hairpin," and 3) becomes inserted into the hydrophobic bilayer by its folded N-terminal portion, leaving its positively charged C-terminal end exposed to the extravesicular aqueous medium. Similar experiments carried out with the noninactivating, L7E-ShB mutant peptide show that this peptide 1) binds also to the anionic vesicles, although with a lower affinity than does the ShB peptide, 2) adopts only occasionally the characteristic beta-structure, and 3) has completely lost the ability to traverse the anionic interphase at the vesicle surface and to insert into the hydrophobic vesicle bilayer. Because the negatively charged surface and the hydrophobic domains in the model target may partly imitate those conformed at the inactivation "entrance" of the channel proteins, we propose that channel inactivation likely includes molecular events similar to those observed in the interaction of the ShB peptide with the phospholipid vesicles, i.e., binding of the peptide to the region of negative surface potential, folding of the bound peptide as a beta-structure, and its insertion into the channel's hydrophobic vestibule. Likewise, we relate the lack of channel inactivation seen with the mutant ShB-L7E peptide to the lack of ability shown by this peptide to cross through the anionic interphase and insert into the hydrophobic domains of the model vesicle target.

Enzymatic determination of phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin and phosphatidylglycerol in lipid dispersions, blood cell membranes and rat pulmonary surfactant

A new micromethod for the determination of sphingomyelin in samples suspended in aqueous solutions, and modified micromethods for determining phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylglycerol were used to determine phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin (detection limits of 1.8 mumol/l), and phosphatidylglycerol (detection limit of 2.3 mumol/l) in lipid dispersions, membranes from sheep erythrocytes and platelets, and pulmonary surfactants from rats of different ages and rats maintained under normobaric hyperoxia for 2 days prior to their sacrifice. The procedures are easy to perform, accurate, require less sample than conventional methods and can also be applied directly to aqueous samples. Phospholipase C and sphingomyelinase were used to release phosphorylcholine from phosphatidylglycerol and sphingomyelin, respectively. The choline released from phosphorylcholine by alkaline phosphatase is reconverted to phosphorylcholine by ATP and choline kinase. In the phophatidylglycerol determination, phospholipase D was used to release glycerol and phosphatidate. The glycerol formed was converted to glycerolphosphate using ATP and glycerol kinase. In all cases, the ADP thus formed was determined by following the enzymatic conversion of NADH to NAD at 340 nm in an coupled pyruvate kinase/lactate dehydrogenase system. Significant variations in the phospholipid composition of rat pulmonary surfactant were found during development; in particular there was an increase in the phosphatidylglycerol content of adult rats as compared with younger rats. Hyperoxia produced changes in the phosphatidylglycerol content of surfactant from adult rats, but not from 2-day old rats.

Design and optimization of multi-stepped waveguide applicators for medical applications

Modal analysis and scattering matrix concepts at discontinuities have been applied to the design and optimization of open-ended waveguide applicators with several transverse discontinuities. The tissues are simulated by means of two dielectric layers, skin and fat. The results obtained show how important improvements can be obtained in the match between the applicator and the tissues. This method can also be applied to obtain applicators with increased depth of penetration, by controlling the discontinuities of the applicators.