Species specificity of amidine-based urokinase inhibitors

Inhibition of the proteolytic activity of urokinase has been shown to inhibit the progression of tumors in rodent models and is being investigated for use in human disease. Understanding the rodent/human species-specificity of urokinase inhibitors is therefore critical for interpretation of rodent cancer progression models that use these inhibitors. We report here studies with a panel of 11 diverse urokinase inhibitors in both human and mouse enzymatic assays. Inhibitors such as amiloride, B428, and naphthamidine, that occupy only the S1 subsite pocket were found to be nearly equipotent between the human and the murine enzymes. Inhibitors that access additional, more distal, pockets were significantly more potent against the human enzyme but there was no corresponding potency increase against the murine enzyme. X-ray crystallographic structures of these compounds bound to the serine protease domain of human urokinase were solved and examined in order to explain the human/mouse potency differences. The differences in inhibitor potency could be attributed to four amino acid residues that differ between murine and human urokinases: 60, 99, 146, and 192. These residues are Asp, His, Ser, and Gln in human and Gln, Tyr, Glu, and Lys in mouse, respectively. Compounds bearing a cationic group that interacts with residue 60 will preferentially bind to the human enzyme because of favorable electrostatic interactions. The hydrogen bonding to residue 192 and steric considerations with residues 99 and 146 also contribute to the species specificity. The nonparallel human/mouse enzyme inhibition observations were extended to a cell-culture assay of urokinase-activated plasminogen-mediated fibronectin degradation with analogous results. These studies will aid the interpretation of in vivo evaluation of urokinase inhibitors.

Thiazole analogues of the NSAID indomethacin as selective COX-2 inhibitors

The carboxyl group of the NSAID indomethacin was replaced with a variety of substituted thiazoles to obtain a series of potent, selective inhibitors of COX-2. Additional substitutions were made at the 1-position and 5-position of the indole of indomethacin.

Symmetrical bis(heteroarylmethoxyphenyl)alkylcarboxylic acids as inhibitors of leukotriene biosynthesis

Symmetrical bis(quinolylmethoxyphenyl)alkylcarboxylic acids were investigated as inhibitors of leukotriene biosynthesis and 4, 4-bis(4-(2-quinolylmethoxy)phenyl)pentanoic acid sodium salt (47.Na) met our design parameters for a drug candidate (ABT-080). This compound was readily synthesized in three steps from commercially available diphenolic acid. Against intact human neutrophils, 47.Na inhibited ionophore-stimulated LTB(4) formation with an IC(50) = 20 nM. In zymosan-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages producing both LTC(4) and PGE(2), 47.Na showed 9000-fold selectivity for inhibition of LTC(4) (IC(50) = 0.16 nM) over PGE(2) (IC(50) = 1500 nM). Preliminary pharmacokinetic evaluation in rat and cynomolgus monkey demonstrated good oral bioavailability and elimination half-lives of 9 and 5 h, respectively. Pharmacological evaluation of leukotriene inhibition with oral dosing was demonstrated in a rat pleural inflammation model (ED(50) = 3 mg/kg) and a rat peritoneal passive anaphylaxis model (LTB(4), ED(50) = 2.5 mg/kg; LTE(4), ED(50) = 1.0 mg/kg). In a model of airway constriction induced by antigen challenge in actively sensitized guinea pigs, 47.Na dosed orally blocked bronchoconstriction with an ED(50) = 0.4 mg/kg, the most potent activity we have observed for any leukotriene inhibitor in this model. The mode of inhibitory action of 47.Na occurs at the stage of 5-lipoxygenase biosynthesis as it blocks both leukotriene pathways leading to LTB(4) and LTC(4) but not PGH(2) biosynthesis. However, 47.Na does not inhibit 5-lipoxygenase catalysis in a broken cell enzyme assay; therefore it is likely that 47.Na acts as a FLAP inhibitor.

Fluorescent microplate assay for cancer cell-associated cathepsin B

Cathepsin B and in particular cell-surface and secreted cathepsin B has been implicated in the invasive and metastatic phenotype of numerous types of cancer. We describe here a method to easily survey cancer cell lines for cathepsin B activity using the highly selective substrate Z-Arg-Arg-AMC. Intact human U87 glioma cells hydrolyze Z-Arg-Arg-AMC with a Km of 460 microM at pH 7.0 and 37 degrees C. This is nearly the same as the Km of 430 microM obtained with purified cathepsin B assayed under the same conditions. The pericellular (i.e. both cell-surface and released) cathepsin B activity was inhibited by the cysteine protease inhibitors E-64, leupeptin, Mu-Np2-HphVS-2Np, Mu-Leu-HpHVSPh and the cathepsin B selective inhibitor Mu-Tyr(3,5 I2)-HphVSPh with IC50 values similar to those observed for the inhibition of purified human liver cathepsin B. Other human cancer cell lines with measurable pericellular cathepsin B activity included HT-1080 fibrosarcoma, MiaPaCa pancreatic, PC-3 prostate and HCT-116 colon. Cathepsin B activity correlated with protein levels of cathepsin B as determined by immunoblot analysis. Pericellular cathepsin B activity was also detected in the rat cell lines MatLyLu prostate and Mat B III adenocarcinoma and in the murine lines B16a melanoma and Lewis lung carcinoma. The ability to determine pericellular cathepsin B activity will be useful in selecting appropriate cell lines for use in vivo when analyzing the effects of inhibiting cathepsin B activity on tumor growth and metastasis.

Heteroarylmethoxyphenylalkoxyiminoalkylcarboxylic acids as leukotriene biosynthesis inhibitors

A novel series of heteroarylmethoxyphenylalkoxyiminoalkylcarboxylic acids was studied as leukotriene biosynthesis inhibitors. A hypothesis of structure-activity optimization by insertion of an oxime moiety was investigated using REV-5901 as a starting point. A systematic structure-activity optimization showed that the spatial arrangement and stereochemistry of the oxime insertion unit proved to be important for inhibitory activity. The promising lead, S-(E)-11, inhibited LTB(4) biosynthesis in the intact human neutrophil with IC(50) of 8 nM and had superior oral activity in vivo, in a rat pleurisy model (ED(50) = 0.14 mg/kg) and rat anaphylaxis model (ED(50) = 0.13 mg/kg). In a model of lung inflammation, S-(E)-11 blocked LTE(4) biosynthesis (ED(50) of 0.1 mg/kg) and eosinophil influx (ED(50) of 0.2 mg/kg). S-(E)-11 (A-93178) was selected for further preclinical evaluation.

Discovery of a new cyclooxygenase-2 lead compound through 3-D database searching and combinatorial chemistry

Using a combination of computational and combinatorial chemistry methodologies, a phenothiazine compound was discovered that is a selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-2 and serves as a lead compound for a potentially novel series of anti-inflammatory compounds.

Stimulus dependence of non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug potency in a cellular assay of prostaglandin H synthase-2

The prostaglandin H synthase-2 selective non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs nimesulide, NS-398 (N-(2-cyclohexyloxy-4-nitrophenyl)methanesulfonamide), flosulide and SC 58125 (5-(4-fluorophenyl)-1-[4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H- pyrazole) as well as the non-selective non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs indomethacin, meclofenamate and ibuprofen were compared in a WISH (human amnionic epithelial cell) cellular assay of prostaglandin H synthase-2 activity. Varying amounts of prostaglandin E2 were induced in WISH cells using either interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, alone or in combination, or with okadaic acid as stimulants. The results from these studies demonstrated that under conditions which generate greater amounts of prostaglandin E2, the potency of both prostaglandin H synthase-2 selective and non-selective non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs may be reduced. Dexamethasone, a transcriptional inhibitor of prostaglandin H synthase-2, also became progressively less effective in cells activated by combinations of stimuli or with okadaic acid. We conclude that decreases in potency under conditions of high levels of prostaglandin H synthase-2 expression and prostaglandin E2 production are observed equally with prostaglandin H synthase-2 selective and non-selective inhibitors.

Synthesis of indolylalkoxyiminoalkylcarboxylates as leukotriene biosynthesis inhibitors

A series of substituted indolylalkoxyiminoalkylcarboxylates were found to be potent leukotriene biosynthesis inhibitors. The structure-activity relationships were investigated. Representative potent inhibitors identified were the quinolyl 3a (A-86885) and pyridyl 3b (A-86886) congeners with in vitro IC50s of 21 and 9 nM and in vivo leukotriene inhibition in the rat with oral ED50s of 0.9 and 1.7 mg/kg, respectively.

ABT-761 attenuates bronchoconstriction and pulmonary inflammation in rodents

Our primary goal has been to discover leukotriene biosynthesis inhibitors with characteristics that are appropriate for use as clinical agents. The success of the use of zileuton in the treatment of asthma led us to explore further the use of the N-hydroxyurea class of 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors as longer-acting compounds with good lung penetration. A variety of in vitro and in vivo methods were used to evaluate a large number of compounds, from which ABT-761 [(R)-N-(3-(5-(4-fluorophenylmethyl)thien-2-yl)-1-methyl-2-pr opynyl)-N-hydroxyurea] was selected for study. ABT-761 exhibited potent and selective inhibition of leukotriene formation both in vitro and in vivo. More importantly, the compound potently inhibited antigen-induced bronchospasm in guinea pigs when given either prophylactically or therapeutically. In addition, ABT-761 was a potent inhibitor of eosinophil influx into the lungs of Brown Norway rats. These data provide added support for the role of leukotrienes in both bronchospasm and eosinophilic inflammation and characterize ABT-761 as a particularly potent inhibitor of leukotrienes formed in pulmonary tissues. These data combined with the excellent pharmacokinetic characteristics of the compound indicate its potential use in the treatment of leukotriene-dependent human disease.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as scaffolds for the design of 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors

Representative nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) cyclooxygenase inhibitors such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and indomethacin were used as orally bioavailable scaffolds to design selective 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) inhibitors. Replacement of the NSAID carboxylic acid group with a N-hydroxyurea group provided congeners with selective 5-LO inhibitory activity.

Induction of prostaglandin H synthase-2 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in human amnionic WISH cells by various stimuli occurs through distinct intracellular mechanisms

These studies examined the signal transduction mechanisms by which prostaglandin (PG) E2 production can occur in human amnionic WISH cells in response to the stimuli okadaic acid, interleukin (IL)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) or combinations of PMA with IL-1beta or TNF-alpha. We also investigated whether WISH cells are capable of producing TNF-alpha or IL-1beta in response to stimulation, because these cytokines can be produced in an autocrine fashion to perpetuate an inflammatory response. Our data indicate that the magnitude of PGE2 production induced by a given stimulus correlated temporally with the level of PGH synthase-2 (PGHS-2) protein. PMA or IL-1beta induced PGE2 production 2 to 4 hr after treatment, whereas the combination of these agents produced the most rapid induction 2 hr after treatment. Only okadaic acid induced the production of both PGE2 and TNF-alpha, after a lag of 12 to 18 hr. PGE2 production by all stimuli was inhibited by dexamethasone, the IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), the specific PGHS-2 inhibitor NS-398 and the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporin. In contrast, TNF-alpha production in response to okadaic acid was inhibited by the TNF-converting enzyme inhibitor GI 129471 and staurosporin but was unaffected by either IL-1ra, dexamethasone or NS-398. We conclude that WISH cells are capable of producing bioactive proinflammatory mediators such as TNF-alpha and PGE2 through separable intracellular signal transduction mechanisms. The ability of IL-1ra to reduce PGE2 production caused by all stimuli used suggests an autocrine role for IL-1 in PGHS-2 induction in these cells.

Conversion of cyclooxygenase inhibitors into hydroxythiazole 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors

Representative examples of NSAID cyclooxygenase inhibitors such as naproxen, ibufenac, ibuprofen, and butibufen have been transformed into 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors by replacement of the carboxylic acid moiety with a 4-hydroxythiazole group.

Leukotrienes do not regulate nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages

RAW 264.7 macrophages respond to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) by producing large amounts of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), with maximal production 18-24 h after treatment. Following stimulation with the calcium inophore A23187, cultures of RAW cells also produce modest amounts of leukotrienes. However, the capacity of these cells to produce leukotrienes is transient, beginning 2 h after vehicle or LPS/IFN-gamma treatment, peaking by 4-6 h and absent by 8 h. A-79175, (R(+) N-[3-[5-(4-Fluorophenoxy)-2-furanyl]-1-methyl-2-propynyl]-N-hydroxyurea) a specific inhibitor of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), abolished leukotriene production by RAW cells in a dose-dependent, non-cytotoxic fashion while having no effect on PGE2 or NO production. By contrast, nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) inhibited production of leukotrienes, PGE2 and NO only at doses that were cytotoxic to the RAW cells. Exogenous leukotriene B4 (LTB4) had no effect on either NO or PGE2 production. An inhibitor of NO production, L-N-5-(1-iminoethyl) ornithine HCl (NIO) also did not affect leukotriene or PGE2 production, while dexamethasone blocked PGE2 and NO production, but did not affect leukotriene production in these cells. Taken collectively, these results indicate that there is no interaction between the pathways for leukotriene and nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Interleukin-1 beta induces cytosolic phospholipase A2 and prostaglandin H synthase in rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts. Evidence for their roles in the production of prostaglandin E2

OBJECTIVE

In order to investigate potential regulatory mechanisms for the increased production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta)-stimulated rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts (RSF), this study examined the induction of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and prostaglandin H synthase (PGHS) enzymes and the correlation of these events with PGE2 production in IL-1 beta-stimulated RSF.

METHODS

Protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2) and PGHS-2 enzymes in IL-1 beta-stimulated RSF were measured by Western and Northern blotting, respectively, using specific antisera and complementary DNA probes. Enzymatic activity of cPLA2 was determined in cell-free reaction mixtures utilizing mixed micelles of 14C-phosphatidylcholine and Triton X-100 as the substrate. PGE2 levels were quantitated using a commercial enzyme immunoassay kit.

RESULTS

Incubation of RSF with IL-1 beta increased the mRNA and protein levels for the high molecular weight cPLA2 as well as for the mitogen/growth factor-responsive PGHS (PGHS-2). The IL-1 receptor antagonist completely abolished the induction of these two enzymes and the stimulation of PGE2 production by IL-1 beta in RSF. In contrast, levels of the other known forms of these enzymes, i.e., the 14-kd secretory group II PLA2 (sPLA2) and the constitutive form of PGHS (PGHS-1), were unaffected by IL-1 beta treatment.

CONCLUSION

These are the first data to demonstrate the coordinate induction by IL-1 of cPLA2 and PGHS-2 in RSF. The time-course for the induction of these enzymes suggests that their increase contributes to the increased production of PGE2 in IL-1-treated RSF, and may help explain the capacity of RSF to produce large amounts of PGE2.

Interleukin-1 beta induces cytosolic PLA2 in parallel with prostaglandin E2 in rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts

We investigated the temporal relationship between the increase in enzymatic activity and protein of a high molecular weight (100 kDa), cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2) in interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta)-treated rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts (RSF). Both of these responses increased according to a similar time-course which correlates with PGE2 production by these cells. In contrast, 14 kDa, secreted PLA2 (sPLA2), which was also produced by RSF, was not affected by IL-1 beta treatment. These findings support that an augmentation of CPLA2 activity, caused by an induction of cPLA2 protein, rather than sPLA2, is temporally associated with increased PGE2 production in IL-1 beta-treated RSF.

Synovial protein kinase C and its apparent insensitivity to interleukin-1

Lapine synovial fibroblasts produce prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and neutral metalloproteinases in response to phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), human recombinant interleukin-1 (hrIL-1) and, in an autocrine fashion, in response to partially purified preparations of their own cytokines known as cell-activating factors (CAF). Here we have examined the possible role of protein kinase C (PKC) in these responses. Whereas the 80-kDa substrate for PKC could not be detected in synovial fibroblasts, these cells contained a 35-kDa protein which fulfilled the criteria for qualifying as a specific substrate of PKC. Translocation assays based upon phosphorylation of the 35-kDa protein and Western blotting techniques allowed the movement of PKC from the cytosolic to the particulate fraction in response to PMA and CAF to be detected but not in response to 4 alpha-PMA or hrIL-1. Inhibitors of PKC suppressed synovial activation by PMA, partially blocked activation by CAF but had no effect on activation by hrIL-1. There thus appear to be PKC-dependent and PKC-independent routes to synovial cell activation. Our data suggest that IL-1 uses the latter, while CAF contains cytokines which utilize both routes.

Interleukin-1 beta stimulates cytosolic phospholipase A2 in rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activities in rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts (RSF) stimulated with interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) were investigated. RSF incubated in the presence of IL-1 beta (120 pg/ml) for 18 h secreted 35 fold more PGE2 than did those incubated without IL-1 beta. IL-1 beta treatment did not increase the level of secretory PLA2 (sPLA2) activity or sPLA2 protein in the conditioned medium or subcellular fractions of lysed RSF. In contrast, the cell-associated PLA2 activity increased 3 to 4 fold in IL-1 beta stimulated RSF when compared with the control. The IL-1 beta stimulated, cell-associated PLA2 required submicromolar concentrations of calcium for activity, a characteristic consistent with the calcium sensitivity of cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2) activity reported in other cell types, such as U937 cells. These findings demonstrate that an elevation in a cytosolic PLA2, rather than a sPLA2, is associated with increased PGE2 production in IL-1 beta stimulated RSF.

Interleukin-1 and synovial protein kinase C: identification of a novel, 35 kDa cytosolic substrate

We have been examining the role of protein kinase C (PKC) in synovial cell activation in response to interleukin-1 (IL-1). Attempts to measure PKC in soluble extracts of synovial fibroblasts by standard techniques failed. Western blotting with anti-PKC antibodies detected only a low level of PKC in synovial cells compared to rat basophilic leukemia cells and crude brain extracts. However, synovial PKC could be detected by measuring the Ca(2+)- and phospholipid-dependent phosphorylation of endogenous substrates. In this way, a 35 kDa protein was identified as the major endogenous cytosolic substrate for PKC. Treatment of synoviocytes with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) strongly induced the synthesis of neutral metalloproteinases (NPs) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Both Western blotting and assays based upon phosphorylation of the 35 kDa protein confirmed translocation of PKC from the cytosol in response to PMA. Although IL-1 induced the NPs and PGE2, it did so without detectable translocation of PKC. There thus appear to be PKC-dependent and PKC-independent routes of synovial cell activation. Our data suggest that IL-1 uses the latter.

Evidence that responses of articular chondrocytes to interleukin-1 and basic fibroblast growth factor are not mediated by protein kinase C

After exposure to human recombinant interleukin-1 (hrIL-1), chondrocytes increase their synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and neutral metalloproteinases (NMPs). This response, known as chondrocyte activation, is also elicited by partially purified preparations of rabbit synovial IL-1, known as 'chondrocyte activating factors' (CAF). CAF activates chondrocytes more strongly than does hrIL-1, probably because it contains additional growth factors. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is one such factor, although CAF also contains others which modulate the activation of chondrocytes. Chondrocyte activation by hrIL-1 is strongly potentiated by bFGF and phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). A series of experiments was conducted to examine the possible role of protein kinase C (PKC) in mediating these effects. Inhibitors of PKC partially blocked the induction of NMPs by CAF and completely suppressed the potentiating effect of PMA. However, induction by 10 units of hrIL-1/ml and potentiation by bFGF were not affected by these inhibitors. Furthermore, cells whose PKC had been down-regulated by prolonged exposure to PMA remained responsive to IL-1. Surprisingly, inhibitors of PKC greatly increased the amounts of NMPs produced in response to a low dose (1 unit/ml) of hrIL-1. These inhibitors also enhanced the synthesis of PGE2 by cells responding to 1 and 10 units of hrIL-1/ml. Phosphorylation of the 80 kDa substrate for PKC was augmented by PMA and CAF, but not by hrIL-1 or bFGF. Moreover, Western-blotting techniques, which confirmed translocation of PKC in response to PMA and CAF, did not detect translocation in cells treated with hrIL-1 or bFGF. Western blotting also demonstrated the presence of PKC isoenzyme type III (alpha), but not types I (gamma) or II (beta). These data argue that PKC does not mediate the effects of hrIL-1 or bFGF in chondrocytes. However, CAF contains additional substances which activate this enzyme and whose effects may in part be mediated by PKC.

Protein phosphorylation and metalloproteinase synthesis by lapine articular chondrocytes

Interleukin 1 (IL-1) increases the synthesis of neutral metalloproteinases (NMP) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by primary monolayer cultures of lapine articular chondrocytes. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of 32P-labelled cells confirmed that IL-1 strongly altered the pattern of phosphorylated proteins in chondrocytes. This presumably reflects modulation of the activities of protein phosphatases, kinases or both. Despite considerable experimental effort, it proved impossible to implicate activation of protein kinase C (PKC) in the responses of these cells to IL-1. Additional evidence appears also to eliminate protein kinases activated by cyclic AMP and Ca2+/calmodulin. Moreover, recent data further suggest that the 80 kDa IL-1 receptor is not a protein kinase. These findings increase the likelihood that a novel kinase is involved in IL-1 signalling in chondrocytes, as proposed previously for fibroblasts.

Altered patterns of protein phosphorylation in articular chondrocytes treated with interleukin-1 or synovial cytokines

Cultures of lapine articular chondrocytes were exposed to purified, human, recombinant interleukin-1 alpha or partially purified preparations of lapine, synovial, cytokines in the presence of [32P]orthophosphate. After 30 min incubation, phosphoproteins were extracted from the cells, separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and visualized autoradiographically. Analysis of the autoradiograms revealed that interleukin-1 and the synovial factors produced marked changes in the pattern of protein phosphorylation. The synovial cytokines induced many of the same changes as interleukin-1, as well as a number of unique changes. This finding is consistent with the notion that, in addition to interleukin-1, synoviocytes secrete other cytokines which modulate the metabolism of chondrocytes. These data support the idea that signal transduction in chondrocytes responding to interleukin-1 involves the activation of one or more protein kinases.

Evidence that alterations in small molecule permeability are involved in the Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin-induced inhibition of macromolecular synthesis in Vero cells

The mechanism by which Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) simultaneously inhibits RNA, DNA, and protein synthesis is unknown. In the current study the possible involvement of small molecule permeability alterations in CPE-induced inhibition of macromolecular synthesis was examined. Vero cells CPE-treated in minimal essential medium (MEM) completely ceased net precursor incorporation into RNA and protein within 15 minutes of CPE treatment. However, RNA and protein synthesis continued for at least 30 minutes in Vero cells CPE-treated in buffer (ICIB) approximating intracellular concentrations of most ions. Addition of intracellular concentrations of amino acids to ICIB (ICIB-AA) caused a further small but detectable increase in protein synthesis in CPE-treated cells. ICIB did not affect CPE-specific binding levels or rates. Similar small molecule permeability changes (i.e., 86Rb-release) were observed in cells CPE-treated in either ICIB or in Hanks' balanced salt solution. Collectively these findings suggest that CPE-treatment of cells in ICIB-AA ameliorates CPE-induced changes in intracellular concentrations of ions and amino acids and permits the continuation of RNA and protein synthesis. These results are consistent with and support the hypothesis that permeability alterations for small molecules are involved in the CPE-induced inhibition of precursor incorporation into macromolecules in Vero cells.

Protein kinase C and chondrocyte activation

We have begun to examine the role of protein kinase C (PKC) in chondrocyte activation by interleukin-1 (IL-1) in search of a possible signal transduction mechanism. Untreated chondrocytes synthesised little or no collagenase or gelatinase and only modest amounts of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), while IL-1 induced considerable amounts of these. An activator of PKC, phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), alone did not influence the synthesis of the metalloproteinases to any great degree, but enhanced PGE2 production. Sphingosine and staurosporin, inhibitors of PKC, each eliminated the synergistic effect of PMA upon enzyme induction by high doses (10 U/ml) of IL-1, but failed to influence enzyme induction by this dose of IL-1 alone. However, a low dose (1 U/ml) of IL-1 in combination with these inhibitors was synergistic upon enzyme induction. Although these inhibitors reduced the synthesis of PGE2 in response to PMA, synthesis of PGE2 in response to both doses of IL-1 was greatly enhanced by the inhibitors. PMA, but not IL-1, enhanced the phosphorylation of an 80 K protein which is characteristic of PKC activity in certain types of cells. From these data, we conclude that PKC is unlikely to be involved in the induction of neutral metalloproteinases by IL-1, although once induction has occurred, PKC may modulate this effect. PKC may also act as regulator of PGE2 synthesis, although this requires further investigation.

The effects of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin on intracellular levels or transport of uridine, thymidine and leucine do not fully explain enterotoxin-induced inhibition of macromolecular synthesis in Vero cells

Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin (CPE) has been shown previously to inhibit the incorporation of radiolabeled precursors into acid-insoluble material but the mechanism of inhibition is unknown. It has also been shown that extracellular calcium is required for some CPE effects. In this report, it is shown that CPE completely and virtually simultaneously inhibits incorporation of precursors into RNA, DNA and protein in either the presence or absence of extracellular divalent cations and that changes in intracellular precursor levels did not consistently correlate with this CPE-induced inhibition of incorporation. These results strongly suggest that CPE can inhibit macromolecular synthesis, not just inhibit precursor transport. It is inferred from this that CPE can affect DNA and RNA synthesis, and possibly protein synthesis, by altering other cellular processes besides, or in addition to, precursor transport and these effects then lead to a shutdown of macromolecular synthesis.

Divalent cation involvement in the action of Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin. Early events in enterotoxin action are divalent cation-independent

Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin (CPE) is a membrane-active cytotoxin. There are a number of recognized early steps in CPE cytotoxicity including binding of CPE to a protein receptor, insertion of CPE into membranes, and CPE-mediated induction of changes in membrane permeability for small molecules such as ions and amino acids. Further support for the existence of these early steps and further characterization of these events are presented in this report. We now report that these early steps in CPE action are largely independent of extracellular divalent cations. It is also shown that 3H-nucleotide release, known to be a later CPE effect, is Ca2+-dependent. A model for CPE cytotoxicity is suggested involving CPE action as a two-step process with Ca2+-independent early steps and Ca2+-dependent late steps.