Can on-farm animal welfare explain relative production differences between dairy herds?

The aim of this study was to investigate factors responsible for between-herd variation in milk production, when genetic variation is controlled. Quantitative information regarding farms' production environment and animal welfare, as evaluated annually by veterinarians and health and feeding records, were the factors studied. Principal component analysis was used to reduce the production environment variables as well as the welfare data. Two linear regression models were devised. The first model used welfare indicators and veterinary treatments to predict the difference between herds' observed and potential milk yield. The second model explained the residual of the first model by feeding and animal-based indicator data. Together, these two models explained 62% of the variance in milk yield differences between herds. Specifically, feeding of the herd was the most important factor, accounting for 67%, followed by the production environment/animal welfare (30%) and finally animal health, assessed through veterinary treatments, explained the remaining 3% of the variance. A poor welfare rating adversely affected milk production. Similarly, a low score for fatness at slaughter, poor milk quality and high mortality all showed a clear negative association with production. It was found that while feeding remains a major factor, production environment and animal welfare also have significant roles to play when it comes to production. Notably, those farms with major animal welfare problems were shown to display milk yield below the Finnish average.

Food Consumption and Nutrient Intake in Relation to Denture Use in 55- to 84-Year-Old Men and Women -Results of a Population Based Survey

OBJECTIVE

To study differences in consumption of foods and intake of nutrients attributable to denture status.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Data from a cross-sectional, nationally representative Health 2000 Survey, subjects aged 55-84 years (n=2,241).

MEASUREMENTS

Denture status (edentulous with full dentures, own dentition with removable dentures, own dentition with no removable dentures) was used as an explanatory variable. The consumption of foods and intake of nutrients was used as an outcome variable and was measured using a validated Food Frequency Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Denture status associated with food choices. Full denture wearers consumed less vegetables (p = 0.013 among men and p = 0.001 among women) and fruits (p = 0.001 among women), more sugary products (p = 0.012 among men and p = 0.008 among women), and their balance in fatty acids was less favourable than among dentate participants. Among dentate participants, the differences between the two groups were small and statistically significant differences were seen mostly in women.

CONCLUSIONS

Wearing full dentures appears to be associated with unhealthier food choices, lower consumption of some foodstuffs and lower intake of certain nutrients when compared to the food choices of dentate persons.

Phosphorus mitigation during springtime runoff by amendments applied to grassed soil

Permanent grass vegetation on sloping soils is an option to protect fields from erosion, but decaying grass may liberate considerable amounts of dissolved reactive P (DRP) in springtime runoff. We studied the effects of freezing and thawing of grassed soil on surface runoff P concentrations by indoor rainfall simulations and tested whether the peak P concentrations could be reduced by amending the soil with P-binding materials containing Ca or Fe. Forty grass-vegetated soil blocks (surface area 0.045 m, depth 0.07 m) were retrieved from two permanent buffer zones on a clay and loam soil in southwest Finland. Four replicates were amended with either: (i) gypsum from phosphoric acid processing (CaSO × 2HO, 6 t ha), (ii) chalk powder (CaCO, 3.3 t ha), (iii) Fe-gypsum (6 t ha) from TiO processing, or (iv) granulated ferric sulfate (Fe[SO], 0.7 t ha), with four replicates serving as untreated controls. Rainfall (3.3 h × 5 mm h) was applied on presaturated samples set at a slope of 5% and the surface runoff was analyzed for DRP, total dissolved P (TDP), total P (TP), and suspended solids. Rainfall simulation was repeated twice after the samples were frozen. Freezing and thawing of the samples increased the surface runoff DRP concentration of the control treatment from 0.19 to 0.46 mg L, up to 2.6-3.7 mg L, with DRP being the main P form in surface runoff. Compared with the controls, surface runoff from soils amended with Fe compounds had 57 to 80% and 47 to 72% lower concentrations of DRP and TP, respectively, but the gypsum and chalk powder did not affect the P concentrations. Thus, amendments containing Fe might be an option to improve DRP retention in, e.g., buffer zones.

Optimal replacement policy and economic value of dairy cows with diverse health status and production capacity

Understanding optimal replacement practices is essential in milk production management. In this study, we produced a stochastic dynamic optimization model that included the risk of diseases. Moreover, the study took into consideration the genetic production capacity of a cow and the uncertainty related to it. We determined the optimal replacement policy separately for Ayrshire and for Holstein-Friesian Finnish herds. The need for veterinary treatments and the probability of involuntary culling were estimated from the Finnish dairy herd health recording system. We found that the portion of involuntary culling was approximately 50% of present disposals. The need for veterinary treatments and the probability of involuntary culling were higher for Holstein-Friesian than for Ayrshire cows. Regardless of health status, only the oldest cows with low production capacity should be disposed of intentionally. In the postoptimization steady state, the mean parity was 3.8 and 3.7 for Ayrshire and Holstein-Friesian herds, respectively. Under current management practice, the mean is only 2.3 parities. Preventing premature culling of dairy cows is important to improve the possibilities of breeding selection and the economic performance of milk production. The expected net present value of a cow was slightly higher in Ayrshire than in Holstein-Friesian herds. The results indicate that in the long run, it is worth paying attention to the health status and longevity of a cow as well as to its high yield.

In-cage sandbox as a ground substitute for farmed blue foxes (Alopex lagopus): Effects on digging activity and welfare

A study on the behavioural and welfare effects of in-cage sandboxes was carried out on juvenile farm-bred blue foxes (Alopex lagopus) with special reference to digging behaviours and time spent on sand substrate. Twelve juvenile male blue foxes were used in each of two experimental groups: (1) a test group and (2) a control group. Animals were raised singly in cages measuring 120 cm long × 105 cm wide × 70 cm high, from weaning in July to pelting in December. All experimental animals were housed conventionally but cages of the test group contained in-cage sandboxes (80 cm long × 40 cm wide × 14 cm high). Various physiological, behavioural, health and production related variables were measured during the study. Final body weights of test animals were significantly (P = 0.05) lower than controls. Occurrence of endoparasites (Toxascaris leonina, Isospora sp.) did not substantially differ between groups. Open field activity was greater (P = 0.02) and latency to touch novel objects shorter (P = 0.02) in the test group compared with the control. Cortisol-creatinine ratio, incidence of stereotypes, size of adrenals or other organs, blood screen and fur quality parameters were not significantly different. Sandbox hygiene deteriorated rapidly during the experimental period. Fur coats of test animals were dirtier than those of controls at pelting. Claw length of test animals was significantly shorter (front foot; P < 0.005, back foot, P < 0.001) than in controls only in October. Altogether nine different sandbox behaviours were observed in the test foxes. Digging was the fifth most common behavior, comprising 5.8% of total sandbox use. Amount of time spent in the sandbox peaked in July, averaging 117 min/24 h, and declined towards winter. The most common sandbox behaviours observed were walking (24.3% of total time), sitting (22.0%) and resting (17.5%). Results indicated low motivation to use in-cage sandboxes as a digging substrate. On the other hand, the presence of in-cage sandboxes may provide opportunities for foxes to engage in other species-specific activities and/or seek sensory comfort through contact with the sand. The effects of in-cage sandboxes on animal welfare need further study. Key words: Alopex lagopus, sand floor, digging, motivation, welfare, fur farming

Effect of temperament and behavioural reactions to the presence of a human during the pre-mating period on reproductive performance in farmed mink (Mustela vison)

The present study sought to evaluate the relationship between temperament, pre-mating behaviour and reproductive performance in farmed female mink (Mustela vison). Temperament was measured by using a stick test and behavioural reactions to the presence of a human during pre-mating period by a walking test. The experimental animals comprised 100 confident and 100 fearful scanblack female mink. In each temperament group, 58% of female mink were primiparous and 42% were multiparous. The length and timing of mating periods and the length of the gestation period were similar in all groups. Pooled data showed that the length of the gestation period correlated negatively with litter size (r = -0.17, P = 0.03). The whelping proportions for confident and fearful primiparous female mink were 81% and 74% (P = 0.37), respectively, and for multiparous females 83% and 81% (P = 0.78), respectively. The number of kits per mated and whelped female at parturition (P < 0.01 and P = 0.04, respectively) and at weaning (P < 0.01 and P = 0.07, respectively) was significantly higher in confident than in fearful females. A significant correlation between kit losses and litter size was found only in primiparous and multiparous confident females (r = 0.35, P = 0.02; r = 0.32, P = 0.07). Postnatal kit mortality was higher in primiparous confident females than fearful females. During walking tests, fearful animals, irrespective of age, remained in side the nest box more frequently than did confident ones. Stationary behaviour outside the cage (lying, sitting, standing, etc.) was more common in confident than in fearful animals (P < 0.001). Significant differences in locomotor activity or stereotypies were not found between the groups. In multiparous fearful females, the whelping result declined significantly with the increasing incidence of stereotypies (r = -0.37, P = 0.04). In primiparous fearful female mink, the relationship was the reverse (r = 0.37; P = 0.01). We conclude that the significant temperament dichotomy (confident vs. fearful) found in farmed mink stock has a marked effect on the reproductive performance of this species. Key words: Farm-bred mink, personality trait, temperament, reproductive performance, domestication

Ratio of proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive nuclei to total cell number is higher in day 7 than in day 8 vitrified in vitro-produced bovine embryos

The aim of the present study was to find a reliable functional criterion for the evaluation of the proliferation potential of bovine in vitro-produced embryos. We used immunocytochemical detection of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) combined with propidium iodide (PI) staining and subsequent confocal laser scanning microscopy together with routine morphological evaluation under a stereomicroscope to study fresh Day 7, 8, and 9, and cryopreserved Day 7 and 8 embryos. The ratio of PCNA/PI-positive nuclei was equal in fresh Day 7 and Day 8 embryos and significantly lower in Day 9 embryos. In general, Day 7 embryos tolerated the cryopreservation treatments better than Day 8 embryos. Vitrification in normal straws was especially detrimental to Day 8 embryos. In fresh Day 7 and 8 embryos, the PCNA results were in agreement with stereomicroscopic evaluation. However, in Day 9 fresh and in Day 7 and 8 treated embryos, the missing PCNA revealed disorders that were not observed under morphological evaluation. PCNA immunocytochemistry is an effective method to obtain information about the functional state of nuclei. The ratio of PCNA-positive nuclei can provide more information and numerical data about the developmental potential of bovine embryos after cryopreservation.

Effect of space and floor material on the behaviour of farmed blue foxes

Effects of space and floor material on the behaviour of blue foxes were evaluated in the following groups: (1) small wire-mesh cages (50 cm long × 105 wide cm × 70 cm high; W50); (2) medium wire-mesh cages (120 cm long × 105 cm wide × 70 cm high; W120); (3) wire-mesh floored pens (5 m long × 3m wide × 1.8 m high:W500); and (4) earthen floored pens (5 m long × 3 m wide × 1.8 m high; E500). Activity and locomotion were lowest in W50 foxes and tended to increase with increasing cage size. Floor material had only a slight effect on activity and stereotypies. Locomotion was higher in E500 than in W500 foxes. Locomotor stereotypy increased with increasing cage size, and was higher in W500 than in E500 foxes. Significant periodic changes were found in several behavioural variables. Activity was concentrated most and least frequently between 8 and 16 h and 0 and 8 h, respectively. The same tendency was found for sitting, standing, locomotion and activity. Digging was noted only in E500 foxes, averaging 15 min/24 h, and being most common between 16 and 24 h. Key words: Alopex lagopus, cage size, floor type, housing conditions, ethogram

Comparison of hay and silage for pregnant and lactating Finnish Landrace ewes

A comparison of conserving timothy/meadow fescue/meadow grass as silage or hay was conducted with Finnish Landrace ewes. Intake of hay (H), silage (S) and hay/silage (HS), and the performance of 30 Finnish Landrace ewes carrying twins, triplets and quadruplets and suckling either twin or triplet lambs was measured during the last 8 weeks of pregnancy and during the first 6 weeks of lactation. The dry matter (DM) intake of HS was lower (p<0.03) than H during lactation, whereas there was no difference in DM intake between pregnant and lactating ewes fed either H or S. The intake of metabolisable energy was on an average 12.8, 14.3 and 13.4MJperday in pregnancy, and 17.7, 20.2 and 18.1MJ in lactation for H, S and HS, respectively. Daily intakes of protein assessed in terms of amino acids absorbed in the small intestine (AAT) were on an average 92, 110 and 102g for H, S and HS during pregnancy and 157, 184 and 165g during lactation, respectively. Ewes in all treatments were, relative to calculated requirements, deficient in energy and protein during the last month of pregnancy and early lactation. Ewes performed consistently better when fed silage than hay. Lamb mortality was low for all treatments. The number of artificially reared lambs tended to be highest when ewes were fed both hay and silage ad libitum. Lamb growth was higher on S than H based diet (p<0.005). With respect to winter feeding of ewes, grass silage compared favourably with hay and indicated that hay could be replaced by well preserved grass silage. During late pregnancy and early lactation, there was no advantage of supplementing silage with hay, relative to entirely silage based diets.

Effects of space allowance and earthen floor on welfare-related physiological and behavioural responses in male blue foxes

Welfare-related physiological and behavioural responses were studied in farm-bred male blue foxes (Alopex lagopus). Three different-sized cages (80-cm long [CL80], 120-cm long [CL120], and 240-cm long [CL240]; each 105-cm wide x 70-cm high) with wire-mesh floors and one enlarged cage (CL240E) with both wire-mesh floor (240-cm long x 105-cm wide x 70-cm high) and earthen floor (80-cm long x 105-cm wide x 70-cm high) were compared. N = 30 males for each group. The experiments lasted from weaning in July to pelting in December. Statistical analyses were based on the models accounting for litter as a block effect. Breaking strength of tibia was highest for foxes having access to both wire-mesh and ground floors (CL240E). Stress-induced hyperthermia was evident during capture and immobilisation. The highest rectal temperature (mean +/- SEM) was found in CL240E (capture: 39.6 +/- 0.09 degrees C, restraint:40.0 +/- 0.09 degrees C) and the lowest in CL80 (capture: 39.1 +/- 0.09 degrees C, restraint: 39.7 +/- 0.09 degrees C). Likewise, capture time (median; interquartile range) in the home cage was highest in CL240E (29; 18 to 44) and lowest in CL80 (12; 9 to 14). During capture, foxes tended to withdraw to the farthest site within the cage. CL240E foxes typically showed the most fear towards human. The most confident animals were found in CL80. The cortisol:creatinine ratio (median; interquartile range) obtained from circadian urine did not reveal statistically significant differences among CL80 (3. 5; 2.6 to 4.1), CL120 (2.3; 1.5 to 3.8) and CL240 (2.3, 1.5 to 3.7). The earthen flooring complicated the urine sampling and conclusions for CL240E (1.7; 1.2 to 2.2). CL240E foxes were the most active and explorative on both wire-mesh- and ground-floored open-field arenas. Altogether, 53% of furs from CL240E were classified as very dirty. Dirtiness of furs in other test groups was slight. In conclusion, the present results did not reveal an unambiguous superiority of any of the studied cage options for well-being of farmed blue foxes.