Testing the reliability of the rearticulation of osteological primate pelves in comparative morphological studies

The evolution of human pelvic form is primarily studied using disarticulated osteological material of living and fossil primates that need rearticulation to approximate anatomical position. To test whether this technique introduces errors that impact biological signals, virtual rearticulations of the pelvis in anatomical position from computed tomography scans were compared with rearticulated models from the same individuals for one female and one male of Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Macaca mulatta, Lepilemur mustelinus, Galago senegalensis, and Nycticebus pygmaeus. "Cadaveric" pelvic bones were first analyzed in anatomical position, then the three bones were segmented individually, intentionally scattered, and "rearticulated" to test for rearticulation error. Three-dimensional landmarks and linear measurements were used to characterize the overall pelvis shape. Cadaveric and rearticulated pelves were not identical, but inter-specific and intra-specific shape differences were higher than the landmarking error in the cadaveric individuals and the landmarking/rearticulation error in the rearticulated pelves, demonstrating that the biological signal is stronger than the noise introduced by landmarking and rearticulation. The rearticulation process, however, underestimates the medio-lateral pelvic measurements in species with a substantial pubic gap (e.g., G. senegalensis, N. pygmaeus) possibly because the greater contribution of soft tissue to the pelvic girdle introduces higher uncertainty during rearticulation. Nevertheless, this discrepancy affects only the caudal-most part of the pelvis. This study demonstrates that the rearticulation of pelvic bones does not substantially affect the biological signal in comparative 3D morphological studies but suggests that anatomically connected pelves of species with wide pubic gaps should be preferentially included in these studies.

There is an obstetrical dilemma: Misconceptions about the evolution of human childbirth and pelvic form

Compared to other primates, modern humans face high rates of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality during childbirth. Since the early 20th century, this "difficulty" of human parturition has prompted numerous evolutionary explanations, typically assuming antagonistic selective forces acting on maternal and fetal traits, which has been termed the "obstetrical dilemma." Recently, there has been a growing tendency among some anthropologists to question the difficulty of human childbirth and its evolutionary origin in an antagonistic selective regime. Partly, this stems from the motivation to combat increasing pathologization and overmedicalization of childbirth in industrialized countries. Some authors have argued that there is no obstetrical dilemma at all, and that the difficulty of childbirth mainly results from modern lifestyles and inappropriate and patriarchal obstetric practices. The failure of some studies to identify biomechanical and metabolic constraints on pelvic dimensions is sometimes interpreted as empirical support for discarding an obstetrical dilemma. Here we explain why these points are important but do not invalidate evolutionary explanations of human childbirth. We present robust empirical evidence and solid evolutionary theory supporting an obstetrical dilemma, yet one that is much more complex than originally conceived in the 20th century. We argue that evolutionary research does not hinder appropriate midwifery and obstetric care, nor does it promote negative views of female bodies. Understanding the evolutionary entanglement of biological and sociocultural factors underlying human childbirth can help us to understand individual variation in the risk factors of obstructed labor, and thus can contribute to more individualized maternal care.

The developmental impacts of natural selection on human pelvic morphology

Evolutionary responses to selection for bipedalism and childbirth have shaped the human pelvis, a structure that differs substantially from that in apes. Morphology related to these factors is present by birth, yet the developmental-genetic mechanisms governing pelvic shape remain largely unknown. Here, we pinpoint and characterize a key gestational window when human-specific pelvic morphology becomes recognizable, as the ilium and the entire pelvis acquire traits essential for human walking and birth. We next use functional genomics to molecularly characterize chondrocytes from different pelvic subelements during this window to reveal their developmental-genetic architectures. We then find notable evidence of ancient selection and genetic constraint on regulatory sequences involved in ilium expansion and growth, findings complemented by our phenotypic analyses showing that variation in iliac traits is reduced in humans compared to African apes. Our datasets provide important resources for musculoskeletal biology and begin to elucidate developmental mechanisms that shape human-specific morphology.

Shaping birth: variation in the birth canal and the importance of inclusive obstetric care

Regional variation in pelvic morphology and childbirth has long occurred alongside traditional labour support and an understanding of possible normal courses of childbirth for each population. The process of migration and globalization has broken down these links, while a European model of 'normal' labour has become widespread. The description of 'normal' childbirth provided within obstetrics and midwifery textbooks, in fact, is modelled on a specific pelvic morphology that is common in European women. There is mounting evidence, however, that this model is not representative of women's diversity, especially for women of non-white ethnicities. The human birth canal is very variable in shape, both within and among human populations, and differences in pelvic shapes have been associated with differences in the mechanism of labour. Normalizing a white-centred model of female anatomy and of childbirth can disadvantage women of non-European ancestry. Because they are less likely to fit within this model, pelvic shape and labour pattern in non-white women are more likely to be considered 'abnormal', potentially leading to increased rates of labour intervention. To ensure that maternal care is inclusive and as safe as possible for all women, obstetric and midwifery training need to incorporate women's diversity. This article is part of the theme issue 'Multidisciplinary perspectives on social support and maternal-child health'.

Climate shaped how Neolithic farmers and European hunter-gatherers interacted after a major slowdown from 6,100 BCE to 4,500 BCE

The Neolithic transition in Europe was driven by the rapid dispersal of Near Eastern farmers who, over a period of 3,500 years, brought food production to the furthest corners of the continent. However, this wave of expansion was far from homogeneous, and climatic factors may have driven a marked slowdown observed at higher latitudes. Here, we test this hypothesis by assembling a large database of archaeological dates of first arrival of farming to quantify the expansion dynamics. We identify four axes of expansion and observe a slowdown along three axes when crossing the same climatic threshold. This threshold reflects the quality of the growing season, suggesting that Near Eastern crops might have struggled under more challenging climatic conditions. This same threshold also predicts the mixing of farmers and hunter-gatherers as estimated from ancient DNA, suggesting that unreliable yields in these regions might have favoured the contact between the two groups.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and Serotonin Transporter (SERT) in Platelets of Patients with Mild Huntington's Disease: Relationships with Social Cognition Symptoms

Deficits in social-cognition processing have been identified during early stages of Huntington Disease (HD), attracting interest on their relevance as possible predictors of  neurodegenerative progression. Since the neurotrophin Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and the serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) are known to modulate human adaptive behavior, we appraised these two proteins in mild-HD using blood platelets, with the aim at finding relationships with cognitive/psychosocial skills. Thirteen gene positive and symptomatic patients (9M/4W, HD-stage II, age> 40y) together 11 gender/age matched controls without a concurrent diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, underwent a blood test to determine BDNF storage and membrane-bound SERT in platelets by an ELISA immune-enzyme dosage and [3H]-paroxetine ([3H]-PAR) binding, respectively. Enrolled subjects were concurrently evaluated through a battery of socio-cognitive tests and emotion recognition questionnaires.Results showed greater intra-platelet BDNF (~ +20-22%) in patients versus controls, whereas equilibrium [3H]-PAR binding parameters, maximum density (Bmax) and dissociation constant (KD), did not appreciably vary in the two comparison groups. Cognitive/emotion abilities were found significantly reduced in patients. Additionally, platelet BDNF was unrelated to psycho-cognitive scores, but positively correlated with the illness duration. As well, SERT Bmax was unconnected to HD signs or socio-cognitive scores, whilst KDs negatively correlated with scores for angry voice recognition in both controls and patients. This pilot study suggests that platelet BDNF and SERT do not specifically underlie psychosocial deficits in stage II-HD, while higher BDNF storage in delayed mild symptoms, would derive from compensatory mechanisms. Supplementary investigations are warranted, by also comparing patients in other illness's phases.

Human variation in the shape of the birth canal is significant and geographically structured

The human birth canal shows a tight fit with the size of the neonate, which can lead to obstetric complications. This is not the case in other apes, and has been explained as the outcome of conflicting evolutionary pressures for bipedal locomotion and parturition of a highly encephalized fetus. Despite the suggested evolutionary constraints on the female pelvis, we show that women are, in fact, extremely variable in the shape of the bony birth canal, with human populations having differently shaped pelvic canals. Neutral evolution through genetic drift and differential migration are largely responsible for the observed pattern of morphological diversity, which correlates well with neutral genetic diversity. Climatic adaptation might have played a role, albeit a minor one, with populations from colder regions showing a more transversally oval shape of the canal inlet. The significant extent of canal shape variation among women from different regions of the world has important implications for modern obstetric practice in multi-ethnic societies, as modern medical understanding has been largely developed on studies of European women.

A pilot statistical study with homoeopathic potencies of arsenicum album in wheat germination as a simple model

A blind, randomized laboratory trial to study homoeopathic potencies of Arsenicum album on wheat germination is proposed as a simple model which allows a rigorous statistical analysis. The parametric tests show that the differences between the treatment groups cannot be explained as a mere effect of intrinsic seed variability.

Effect of high dilutions of Arsenicum album on wheat seedlings from seed poisoned with the same substance

A blind laboratory experiment was carried out to show the effect of a 45x potency of Arsenicum album (As2O3) on wheat seedlings whose seeds had been previously poisoned with a material dose of the same substance. The effect of the homoeopathic treatment on stem growth was statistically significant. The experimental results were matched with a previous study concerning homoeopathic treatment in the same species.

Human Variation in Pelvic Shape and the Effects of Climate and Past Population History

The human pelvis is often described as an evolutionary compromise (obstetrical dilemma) between the requirements of efficient bipedal locomotion and safe parturition of a highly encephalized neonate, that has led to a tight fit between the birth canal and the head and body of the foetus. Strong evolutionary constraints on the shape of the pelvis can be expected under this scenario. On the other hand, several studies have found a significant level of pelvic variation within and between human populations, a fact that seems to contradict such expectations. The advantages of a narrow pelvis for locomotion have recently been challenged, suggesting that the tight cephalo-pelvic fit might not stem from the hypothesized obstetrical dilemma. Moreover, the human pelvis appears to be under lower constraints and to have relatively higher evolvability than other closely related primates. These recent findings substantially change the way in which we interpret variation in the human pelvis, and help make sense of the high diversity in pelvic shape observed within and among modern populations. A lower magnitude of covariance between functionally important regions ensured that a wide range of morphological variation was available within populations, enabling natural selection to generate pelvic variation between populations living in different environments. Neutral processes such as genetic drift and differential migration also contributed to shaping modern pelvic diversity during and after the expansion of humans into and across the various continents. Anat Rec, 300:687-697, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Vertical Hepatitis C Virus Transmission is not Related to Mother-Child Class-1 HLA Concordance

Mother-child human leukocyte antigen (HLA) diversity is protective for vertical transmission of some viruses. The aim of this study is to evaluate the role of mother-child HLA diversity on hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission. Forty consecutive HCV infected and 46 consecutive control uninfected children born to HCV-RNA positive mothers were evaluated for HLA class-1 type concordance with their mothers. No significant difference in the degree of HLA concordance was found between HCV infected and uninfected children both when A, B, C ( p=0.30) and when only A and B alleles were evaluated ( p=0.59). Mother-infant HLA concordance does not affect HCV vertical transmission.

Global geometric morphometric analyses of the human pelvis reveal substantial neutral population history effects, even across sexes

Recent applications of population genetic models to human craniodental traits have revealed a strong neutral component to patterns of global variation. However, little work has been undertaken to determine whether neutral processes might also be influencing the postcranium, perhaps due to substantial evidence for selection and plastic environmental responses in these regions. Recent work has provided evidence for neutral effects in the pelvis, but has been limited in regard to shape data (small numbers of linear measurements) and restricted only to males. Here, we use geometric morphometric methods to examine population variation in the human os coxae (pelvic bone) in both males and females. Neutrality is examined via apportionment of variance patterns and fit to an Out-of-Africa serial founder effect model, which is known to structure neutral genetic patterns. Moreover, we compare males and females directly, and the true versus false pelvis, in order to examine potential obstetrical effects. Our results indicate evidence for substantial neutral population history effects on pelvic shape variation. They also reveal evidence for the effect of obstetrical constraints, but these affect males and females to equivalent extents. Our results do not deny an important role for selection in regard to specific aspects of human pelvic variation, especially in terms of features associated with body size and proportions. However, our analyses demonstrate that at a global level, the shape of the os coxae reveals substantial evidence for neutral variation. Our analyses thus indicate that population variation in the human pelvis might be used to address important questions concerning population history, just as the human cranium has done.

Human pelvis and long bones reveal differential preservation of ancient population history and migration out of Africa

One of the main events in the history of our species has been our expansion out of Africa. A clear signature of this expansion has been found on global patterns of neutral genetic variation, whereby a serial founder effect accompanied the colonization of new regions, in turn creating a wilhin-pupulation decrease in neutral genetic diversity with increasing distance from Africa. This same distinctive pattern has also been described for cranial and dental morphological variation in human populations distributed across the globe. Here, we used a data set of postcranial linear measurements for 30 globally distributed human populations, and a climatic data set of minimum annual temperature, maximum annual temperature, and precipitation in order to separate for the first time the relative effect of neutral demographic processes and climatic selection on four long (limb) bones (femur, tibia, radius, and humerus) versus the pelvic bones of the human appendicular skeleton. We implemented a stepwise regression procedure in which phenotypic variance is assumed to be affected by the iterative founder events that accompanied human expansion from Africa, as well as by climate. This model included, as independent factors, geographic distance from central Africa, the three climatic variables, and all possible interactions between the three climatic variables. We excluded all nonsignificant factors by backward stepwise elimination with the aim of identifying the minimal model significantly explaining variation in the phenotypic data. Our results indicate a sharp difference in the way the pelvis and the limb bones reflect the neutral signature of the out-of-Africa expansion. Consistent with previous analyses of the cranium and dentition, pelvic shape variation shows a significant within-population decrease with increasing distance from Africa. However, no such pattern could be found in the long bones. Rather, in the case of both the tibia and the femur, a significant relationship between population-level variance and minimum temperature was demonstrated. Hence, in the case of these limb bones, it is probable that the effects of climatic selection have obliterated the demographic signature of human dispersal from Africa. Our finding mat pelvic variation exhibits the neutral effects of demographic history suggests that consideration of this skeletal element might be used to shed light on factors of human population history, just as the cranium has done.

Reporting experiments in homeopathic basic research-description of the checklist development

The objective of this study was to develop a criteria catalogue serving as a guideline for authors to improve quality of reporting experiments in basic research in homeopathy. A Delphi Process was initiated including three rounds of adjusting and phrasing plus two consensus conferences. European researchers who published experimental work within the last 5 years were involved. A checklist for authors provide a catalogue with 23 criteria. The “Introduction” should focus on underlying hypotheses, the homeopathic principle investigated and state if experiments are exploratory or confirmatory. “Materials and methods” should comprise information on object of investigation, experimental setup, parameters, intervention and statistical methods. A more detailed description on the homeopathic substances, for example, manufacture, dilution method, starting point of dilution is required. A further result of the Delphi process is to raise scientists' awareness of reporting blinding, allocation, replication, quality control and system performance controls. The part “Results” should provide the exact number of treated units per setting which were included in each analysis and state missing samples and drop outs. Results presented in tables and figures are as important as appropriate measures of effect size, uncertainty and probability. “Discussion” in a report should depict more than a general interpretation of results in the context of current evidence but also limitations and an appraisal of aptitude for the chosen experimental model. Authors of homeopathic basic research publications are encouraged to apply our checklist when preparing their manuscripts. Feedback is encouraged on applicability, strength and limitations of the list to enable future revisions.

CD4(+) and CD4(-) CD1D-restricted natural killer T cells in perinatally HIV-1 infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy

We conducted a cross-sectional study on 43 Italian perinatally human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and 26 age-matched healthy controls to explore CD1d-restricted NKT subsets. CD4(+) CD1d-rectricted natural killer (NKT) cell depletion was evidenced in 26 HIV-1 infected children with active viral replication despite HAART. Conversely, no alteration was evidenced in 17 children with undetectable viral load, suggesting full recovery in both CD4(+) and CD4(-) CD1d-rectricted NKT cell subsets. The loss of CD4(+) NKT cells in unresponsive children may have clinical consequences, including autoimmune disorders or cancer development. Future therapeutic perspectives are suggested.

Reporting experiments in homeopathic basic research (REHBaR)--a detailed guideline for authors

BACKGROUND

Reporting experiments in basic research in homeopathy is an important issue as comprehensive description of what exactly was done is required. So far, there is no guideline for authors available, unlike criteria catalogues common in clinical research.

METHODS

A Delphi Process was conducted, including a total of five rounds, three rounds of adjusting and phrasing plus two consensus conferences. European researchers who published experimental work within the last five years were involved.

RESULTS

A checklist of 23 items was obtained and supplemented with detailed examples emphasizing what each item implies. Background, objectives and possible hypotheses should be given in the part 'introduction'. Special emphasis is put on the 'materials and methods' section, where a detailed description of chosen controls, object of investigation, experimental setup, replication, parameters, intervention, allocation, blinding, and statistical methods is required. The section 'results' should present sufficient details on analysed data, descriptive as well as inferential. Authors should discuss their results and give an interpretation in the context of current evidence.

CONCLUSION

A guideline for Reporting Experiments in Homeopathic Basic Research (REHBaR) was compiled to be applied by authors when preparing their manuscripts, and to be used by scientific journals in the reviewing process. Furthermore the guideline is a commitment to a certain minimum quality level needed in basic research, e.g. blinding and randomisation. Feedback is encouraged on applicability, strength and limitations of the list to enable future revisions.

The relative role of drift and selection in shaping the human skull

Human populations across the world vary greatly in cranial morphology. It is highly debated to what extent this variability has accumulated through neutral processes (genetic drift) or through natural selection driven by climate. By taking advantage of recent work showing that geographic distance along landmasses is an excellent proxy for neutral genetic differentiation, we quantify the relative role of drift versus selection in an exceptionally large dataset of human skulls. We show that neutral processes have been much more important than climate in shaping the human cranium. We further demonstrate that a large proportion of the signal for natural selection comes from populations from extremely cold regions. More generally, we show that, if drift is not explicitly accounted for, the effect of natural selection can be greatly overestimated.

Distance from Africa, not climate, explains within-population phenotypic diversity in humans

The relative importance of ancient demography and climate in determining worldwide patterns of human within-population phenotypic diversity is still open to debate. Several morphometric traits have been argued to be under selection by climatic factors, but it is unclear whether climate affects the global decline in morphological diversity with increasing geographical distance from sub-Saharan Africa. Using a large database of male and female skull measurements, we apply an explicit framework to quantify the relative role of climate and distance from Africa. We show that distance from sub-Saharan Africa is the sole determinant of human within-population phenotypic diversity, while climate plays no role. By selecting the most informative set of traits, it was possible to explain over half of the worldwide variation in phenotypic diversity. These results mirror those previously obtained for genetic markers and show that 'bones and molecules' are in perfect agreement for humans.

SEN virus co-infection among HCV-RNA-positive mothers, risk of transmission to the offspring and outcome of child infection during a 1-year follow-up

SEN is a newly discovered blood-transmissible virus. Among its variants, SENV-D and -H are most often associated with non-A, -E hepatitis. Very little is known about the risk of vertical transmission of the virus. By using polymerase chain reaction with specific primers for SENV-D and -H, we investigated the prevalence of SENV-H and -D infection, the transmission rate of SENV infection and clinical features of SENV-infected children in 89 hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive human immunodeficiency virus type 1-negative mothers. SENV infection was found in 36 (40%) mothers, and SENV-D was more frequent than SENV-H infection (34/36, 94%vs 5/36, 14%, P < 0.01). No difference in SENV infection rates was found between injection drug user (IDU) mothers (17/51, 33%) and mothers with no risk for bloodborne infection (19/38, 50%, P = ns). SENV-H infection was found only in IDU mothers and mothers with HCV genotype1b. Both SENV-D and -H can be transmitted to the offspring with an overall rate of 47%. Vertical transmission of HCV does not facilitate SENV infection of the offspring. Among 17 SENV-infected children, none was co-infected with HCV. Maternal HCV genotype or viral load does not interfere with mother-to-infant transmission of SENV. Persistence of SENV infection was demonstrated in 100% of infected children after 1-year follow-up, but none had clinical evidence of liver disease.

Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors on platelets of fibromyalgic patients

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to analyze if alterations of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) characteristics occurred in platelet membranes of patients affected by primary fibromyalgia (FM).

DESIGN AND METHODS

Platelets were obtained from 30 patients with FM. Evaluation of kinetic parameters of PBR was performed using [(3)H] PK11195 as specific radioligand compared with 16 healthy volunteers.

RESULTS

The results showed a significant increase of PBR binding sites value in platelet membranes from FM patients (B(max) was 5366+/-188 fmol/mg vs. controls, 4193+/-341 fmol/mg, mean+/-SEM) (**p<0.01) but not for affinity value (K(d) was 4.90+/-0.39 nM vs. controls, 4.74+/-0.39 nM, mean+/-SEM) (p>0.05). Symptom severity scores (pain and tiredness) were positively correlated with B(max).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed an up-regulation of PBR in platelets of FM patients, and this seems to be related to the severity of fibromyalgic symptoms.

Common alterations in the serotonin transporter in platelets and lymphocytes of psychotic patients

INTRODUCTION

Given the controversial data concerning the role of the serotonin (5-HT) transporter in psychosis, our study was aimed to investigate this structure by means of the measurements of the re-uptake kinetics and of the protein density, in both platelets and lymphocytes of 25 out- and inpatients with different psychotic disorders.

METHODS

Diagnoses, according to DSM-IV criteria, were bipolar 1 disorders with mood incongruent psychotic features (14), mixed states (7) and schizophrenia (4). Twenty-five matched healthy subjects were also selected as the control group. Platelet and lymphocyte membranes were prepared according to standardized protocols, as were the [3H]5HT re-uptake and [3H]paroxetine ([3H]Par) binding.

RESULTS

The results of this study showed a decreased density of the [3H]Par binding sites coupled with a reduced velocity of [3H]5-HT re-uptake in both platelets and lymphocytes of psychotic patients, as compared with healthy control subjects.

CONCLUSION

These findings would suggest a general abnormality of the 5-HT system in psychotic patients, probably not confined only to the brain.

In vitro effects of lead ions on peripheral benzodiazepine receptors and adenylyl cyclase activity in the mantle of Mytilus galloprovincialis

As an extension of our previous work, where the density of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBR) increased in mantle mitochondria of the marine mollusk Mytilus galloprovincialis Lmk. under chronic exposure to lead, the present study investigates the in vitro effects of an exogenous source of lead ions on PBR and on adenylyl cyclase (AC) complex in mantle membranes of mussels collected from a non-polluted coastal area. PBR binding experiments used the specific isoquinoline carboxamide derivative [3H]PK 11195, and AC activity was measured using a modified procedure adapted to M. galloprovincialis. Lead ions (Pb2+) dose-dependently decreased either the [3H]PK 11195 specific binding in mitochondria or basal AC velocity in plasma membranes of mussel mantle. The IC50 values for lead ions were 10 microM with [3H]PK 11195 binding and 25 microM with AC activity, with maximal inhibition values of 60% and 70%, respectively. Moreover, lead behaved as a non-competitive inhibitor on [3H]PK 11195 binding and as a 'mixed' inhibitor on AC activity. The present results suggest that some of the early effects induced by lead in mussel cell metabolism consist in significant changes of the PBR density and cyclic AMP production in the mantle of M. galloprovincialis.

Effects of homeopathic arsenic on tobacco plant resistance to tobacco mosaic virus. Theoretical suggestions about system variability, based on a large experimental data set

CONTEXT

This research aimed at verifying the efficacy of homeopathic treatments by plant-based bioassays, which may be suitable for basic research, because they lack placebo effects and provide large datasets for statistical analyses.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of homeopathic treatments of arsenic trioxide (As2O3) on tobacco plants subjected to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) inoculation as biotic stress.

DESIGN

Blind, randomized experiment using tobacco leaf disks.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L. cultivar Samsun) carrying the TMV resistance gene N. TMV inoculated leaf disks were floated for 3 days in the following: Distilled water (control). H2O 5 and 45 decimal and centesimal potencies. As2O3 5 and 45 decimal and centesimal potencies. The main outcome measures is the number of hypersensitive lesions observed in a leaf disk.

RESULTS

Homeopathic treatments of arsenic induce two effects on the plant: (i) increased resistance to TMV; (ii) decrease variability between experiments (system variability).

CONCLUSIONS

In this experimental model two actions of homeopathic treatment were detected: decrease in system variability and enhancement of the natural tendency of the system towards an 'equilibrium point'.

Regional brain injury epidemiology as the basis for planning brain injury treatment. The Romagna (Italy) experience

AIM

Neurosurgical services for traumatic brain injury (TBI) should be based upon the understanding of the epidemiology of TBI in the region as well as the clinical parameters. Our objective was to measure incidence and epidemiologic factors associated with TBI in the Romagna region of Northeastern Italy and correlate those parameters with neurosurgical imaging and related clinical features.

METHODS

Guidelines for brain injury management in our region were derived following meetings of all physicians involved in the treatment of brain injury. An epidemiologic study was undertaken in 1998. The study population was all patients admitted for hospital care in the Region following a TBI with a discharge diagnosis of pertinent International Classification Disease, 9(th) revision, codes. Data on the extent, diagnoses, severity, external causes and hospital course were abstracted from the hospital record and computer entered for analyses.

RESULTS

Using data for the population of Romagna of about 1000000 persons we identified, in the full year 1998, 2430 TBI patients or an incidence rate of 250 per 100000 resident population. There were, in addition, 460 nonresident patients who were admitted in the region. External causes of injury were generally similar to reports from other places in Western Europe, with the exception of a very low frequency of cases stemming from violence. Age specific incidence rates were highest among young children, persons aged 15-24, and those aged 65 and older. Computerized tomography scans were given to 1732 patients and intracranial traumatic lesions were identified in 497 (28.6%) patients or a rate of 38 /100000. We performed 128 craniotomies, an incidence rate of 11/100000. The case fatality rate (CFR) was 2.8% among admitted patients with the highest rate among those aged 75 or older.

CONCLUSION

Incidence of TBI in Italy is similar to other published European series. The number of minor brain injuries admitted for hospital care remains high and can be significantly reduced with better use of CT scans in adults whenever possible. The workload for a neurosurgical unit servicing a population of 1 million is limited and does not justify the opening of new units for trauma care or the use of craniotomies outside the Neurosurgical Unit.

Impaired glutathione reductase activity and levels of collagenase and elastase in synovial fluid in rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To test the activity of elastase, collagenase and glutathione reductase in the synovial fluid (SF) of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and in patients with osteoarthritis (OA); to correlate the elastase and collagenase activity with the glutathione reductase activity, which is important for the inactivation of oxygen free radicals.

METHODS

24 patients affected by osteoarthrosis and 24 patients affected by rheumatoid arthritis took part in the study. We measured elastase activity towards the substrate metoxysuccinyl-alanyl-alanyl-prolyl-valyl-p-nitroanilide (MeOSuc-ala-ala-proval-p-NA) which is highly specific for elastase, and insensitive to the other serine proteases, such as cathepsin G; collagenase activity was measured using [14C]-acetylated collagen as the substrate. Glutathione reductase activity was measured following the oxidation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced (NADPH) in the presence of oxidized glutathione (GSSG).

RESULTS

The concentrations of elastase, collagenase and glutathione reductase were statistically higher in patients with RA than in patients with OA. Moreover, in the SF of patients with RA we found positive correlation between enzyme activity levels.

CONCLUSION

These results confirm a high activity of collagenase and elastase in the SF of patients with RA, which is about 30 times higher than that found in the SF of patients with OA. These data underline the synergic action of these enzymes in the pathogenesis of joint damage. RA patients also exhibit higher levels of glutathione reductase, which is important for the detoxification pathway of oxygen free radicals. However, compared with findings for collagenase and elastase, the increase in glutathione reductase is only three times higher than level found in the SF of OA patients. The limited increase in glutathione reductase activity during the inflammatory process might lead to an insufficient protective effect at the joint level in rheumatoid arthritis.

Correlation between platelet alpha(2)-adrenoreceptors and symptom severity in major depression

BACKGROUND

Abnormalities in different parameters of the norepinephrine system have been widely described in major depression. The presence of alpha(2)-adrenoreceptors in blood platelets, similar to those in the brain, prompted us to evaluate them in depressed patients, as compared with healthy controls.

METHODS

Fifteen outpatients affected by major depression, according to DSM IV criteria, and 15 comparable healthy control subjects, were included in the study. The alpha(2)-adrenoreceptors were measured by means of the specific binding of [(3)H]rauwolscine, a highly selective antagonist for this receptor subtype. The severity of depression was assessed by means of the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD).

RESULTS

The results did not show any difference in [(3)H]rauwolscine binding parameters (B(max) and K(d)) between patients and controls. However, in the patients, a significant and positive correlation between B(max), which measures the density of the receptors, and HRSD total score was detected.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, although no change in alpha(2)-adrenoreceptors seems to occur in major depression, the density of these receptors would seem to be related to the severity of depressive symptoms.

Synthesis, biological evaluation, and pharmacophore generation of new pyridazinone derivatives with affinity toward alpha(1)- and alpha(2)-adrenoceptors

A series of new pyridazin-3(2H)-one derivatives (3 and 4) were evaluated for their in vitro affinity toward both alpha(1)- and alpha(2)-adrenoceptors by radioligand receptor binding assays. All target compounds showed good affinities for the alpha(1)-adrenoceptor, with K(i) values in the low nanomolar range. The polymethylene chain constituting the spacer between the furoylpiperazinyl pyridazinone and the arylpiperazine moiety was shown to influence the affinity and selectivity of these compounds. Particularly, a gradual increase in affinity was observed by lengthening the polymethylene chain up to a maximum of seven carbon atoms. In addition, compound 3k, characterized by a very interesting alpha(1)-AR affinity (1.9 nM), was also shown to be a highly selective alpha(1)-AR antagonist, the affinity ratio for alpha(2)- and alpha(1)-adrenoceptors being 274. To gain insight into the structural features required for alpha(1) antagonist activity, the pyridazinone derivatives were submitted to a pharmacophore generation procedure using the program Catalyst. The resulting pharmacophore model showed high correlation and predictive power. It also rationalized the relationships between structural properties and biological data of, and external to, the pyridazinone class.

[3H]Ro 15-1788 binding sites to brain membrane of the saltwater Mugil cephalus

The equilibrium binding parameters of the benzodiazepine antagonist [3H]Ro 15-1788 (8-fluoro-3-carboethoxy-5,6-dihydro-5-methyl-6-oxo-4H-imidazol-[1,5-a]-1,4 benzodiazepine) were evaluated in brain membranes of the saltwater teleost fish, Mugil cephalus. To test receptor subtype specificity, displacement studies were carried out by competitive binding of [3H]Ro 15-1788 against six benzodiazepine receptor ligands, flunitrazepam [5-(2-fluoro-phenyl)-1,3-dihydro-1-methyl-7-nitro-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one], alpidem [N,N-dipropyl-6-chloro-2-(4-chlorophenyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine-3-acetamide], zolpidem [N,N-6 trimethyl-2-(4-methyl-phenyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine-3-acetamide hemitartrate], and beta-CCM (methyl beta-carboline-3-carboxylate). Saturation studies showed that [3H]Ro 15-1788 bound saturatably, reversibly and with a high affinity to a single class of binding sites (Kd value of 1.18-1.5 nM and Bmax values of 124-1671 fmol/mg of protein, depending on brain regions). The highest concentration of benzodiazepine recognition sites labeled with [3H]Ro 15-1788 was present in the optic lobe and the olfactory bulb and the lowest concentration was found in the medulla oblongata, cerebellum and spinal cord. The rank order of displacement efficacy of unlabelled ligands observed suggested that central-type benzodiazepine receptors are present in one class of binding sites (Type I-like) in brain membranes of Mugil cephalus. Moreover, the uptake of 36Cl- into M. cephalus brain membrane vesicles was only marginally stimulated by concentrations of GABA that significantly enhanced the 36Cl- uptake into mammalian brain membrane vesicles. The results may indicate a different functional activity of the GABA-coupled chloride ionophore in the fish brain as compared with the mammalian brain.

Structure-activity relationships in a series of 8-substituted xanthines as A1-adenosine receptor antagonists

A series of 8-substituted xanthines were synthesized and their affinity in vitro towards A1, A2A-adenosine receptors was evaluated by radioligand receptor binding assays. All compounds showed a greater affinity and selectivity towards the A1-adenosine receptor than theophylline. The compounds in which the n-proyl group is in 1-position of the xanthine nucleus and the pyridazinone system in 8-position is linked through a chain of two or four carbon atoms, showed the highest affinity and selectivity.

Distribution of [3H]GR65630 binding in human brain postmortem

We investigated the distribution of serotonin (5-HT) receptors of type 3 (5-HT3) in human brain areas, by means of the the specific binding of [3H]GR65630. The brains were obtained during autoptic sessions from 6 subjects. Human brain membranes and the binding of [3H]GR65630 were carried out according to standardized methods. The highest density (Bmax +/- SD, fmol/mg protein) of [3H]GR65630 binding sites was found in area postrema (13.1+/-9.7), followed at a statistically lower level, by nucleus tractus solitarius (6.7+/-3.4), nervus vagus (5.5+/-2.1), striatum (4.8+/-2.4) with a progressive decrease in amygdala, olivar nuclei, hippocampus, olfactory bulbus and prefrontal cortex, and then by the other cortical areas and the cerebellum, where no binding was detected. These observations extend previous findings on the distribution of 5-HT3 receptors and confirm interspecies variations that might explain the heterogeneous properties of 5-HT3 receptors in different animals.

Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors in human blood cells of patients affected by migraine without aura

The kinetic parameters at equilibrium of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors in platelets, lymphocytes and granulocytes of 15 patients affected by migraine without aura were tested using [3H]PK 11195, a specific radioligand for this receptor and compared with the same number of healthy controls: a statistically significant increase (platelets 212%, lymphocytes 203%, granulocytes 171%, as absolute percentage) in the maximal number of binding sites (B(max)) in all three patient samples, compared with healthy controls was detected; on the contrary, the values of the dissociation constant (K(d)) at equilibrium do not show any statistically significant variations between the two groups. These data further confirm the presence of peripheral biochemical alterations in migraine without aura. As peripheral benzodiazepine receptors appear to be involved in the regulation of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, the observed increase in B(max) might be related to the mitochondrial anomalies found in migraine disorders.

A novel class of highly potent and selective A1 adenosine antagonists: structure-affinity profile of a series of 1,8-naphthyridine derivatives

A series of 1,8-naphthyridine derivatives (12-36), bearing a phenyl group in position 2 and various substituents in positions 4 and 7, were synthesized in an attempt to obtain potent, selective antagonists for the A1 adenosine receptor subtype. The compounds were tested to evaluate their affinity for A1 compared with A2A and A3 adenosine receptor subtypes. In binding studies in bovine brain cortical membranes, most of the compounds showed an affinity for A1 receptors in the low nanomolar range and two in the subnanomolar range with an interesting degree of A1 versus A2A and A3 selectivity. Comparison of the 4-substituted derivatives indicated that 4-OH substitution, with a 4-quinoid structure, causes an increase in the A1 and A2A affinity and generally also in A1 selectivity. The kind of substitution in position 7 can greatly modulate the affinity: the most interesting substituents in this position seemed to be electron-withdrawing groups; in particular the 7-chloronaphthyridine 25d showed a remarkable selectivity (A2A/A1 ratio of 670, A3/A1 ratio of 14,000) associated with a higher A1 affinity (Ki = 0.15 nM). NMR studies on these compounds 12-36 indicated that the 4-OH-substituted ones prefer the tautomer in which the oxygen in position 4 is in the quinoid form and the nitrogen in position 1 is protonated. Theoretical calculations are in agreement with the NMR data.

Statistical analysis of the effect of high dilutions of arsenic in a large dataset from a wheat germination model

This paper describes the statistical analysis of a series of experiments using a simple biological model (wheat germination in vitro), where a large number of wheat seeds were treated with homeopathic potencies of Arsenic trioxide. Some potencies, such as As2O3 40x, 42x and 45x, have repeatedly shown a significant stimulating effect on germination compared to controls, whereas As2O3 35x has a significant inhibiting effect. In some experiments the seeds were stressed before the experiment with a sublethal dose of the same substance. We performed a statistical analysis, both for stressed and non-stressed seed groups, using Poisson distribution as a suitable model for representing the number of non-germinated seeds in a standard experiment with 33 seeds in the same Petri dish. Finally, we have considered the most repeated potencies (30x and 45x), computing the sample odds ratio (OR) and a 95% confidence interval (CI) for the population OR. Our results show significant reproducible effects of some As2O3 decimal potencies, particularly As2O3 45x. In stressed seeds, even decimal potencies of water seem to give significant results compared to control, whereas high dilutions of As2O3 without potentization never show significant effects.

Autoradiographic distribution of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors in the retina of the albino rabbit, Lepus cunicula

The distribution of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBRs) in the retina of the albino rabbit, Lepus cunicula, was studied by autoradiography using [3H]-PK11195, a isoquinoline carboxamide, as a tracer. Autoradiograms obtained by directly placing the slides containing the retina sections on tritium-sensitive film provide evidence for the presence of PBRs in rabbit retina. Furthermore, the dark field examination of photomicrographs taken from autoradiograms showed two dense horizontal bands corresponding to the outer and inner photoreceptor segments, and to the inner plexiform layer. The retinal regions where [3H]-PK11195 binding was more dense are rich in mitochondria, suggesting that as in other neuronal tissues, retinal PBRs are involved in the mitochondrial activity.

Synthesis of new pyridazinone derivatives and their affinity towards alpha1-alpha2-adrenoceptors

A series of 3(2H)-pyridazinone derivatives was evaluated for their affinity in vitro towards alpha1-alpha2-adrenoceptors by radioligand receptor binding assays. All target compounds showed good affinities for the alpha1-adrenoceptor (with Ki values in the subnanomolar range), and a gradual increase in affinity was observed by increasing the polymethylene chain length of this series up to a maximum of six and seven carbon atoms, when the fragment 4-[2-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-ethyl]-1-piperazinyl is linked in 5 position of the 3(2H)-pyridazinone ring, while a slight decrease was found for the higher homologues. Increasing the chain length when the 4-[2-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-ethyl]-1-piperazinyl group is linked in 6 position of the 3(2H)-pyridazinone ring, had a different effect: there is the highest affinity when the polymethylene chain is of four carbon atoms. The alkylic chain, a spacer between the two major constituents of the molecule, can influence the affinity and the selectivity.

Characterization of sulfonylurea receptors in isolated human pancreatic islets

Current information on pancreatic islet sulfonylurea receptors has been obtained with laboratory animal pancreatic beta cells or stable beta-cell lines. In the present study, we evaluated the properties of sulfonylurea receptors of human islets of Langherans, prepared by collagenase digestion and density-gradient purification. The binding characteristics of labeled glibenclamide to pancreatic islet membrane preparations were analyzed, displacement studies with several oral hypoglycemic agents were performed, and these latter compounds were tested as for their insulinotropic action on intact human islets. [3H]glibenclamide saturable binding was shown to be linear at < or =0.25 mg/ml protein; it was both temperature and time dependent. Scatchard analysis of the equilibrium binding data at 25 degrees C indicated the presence of a single class of saturable, high-affinity binding sites with a Kd value of 1.0+/-0.07 nM and a Bmax value of 657+/-48 fmol/mg of proteins. The displacement experiments showed the following rank order of potency of the oral hypoglycemic agents we tested: glibenclamide = glimepiride > tolbutamide > chlorpropamide >> metformin. This binding potency order was parallel with the insulinotropic potency of the evaluated compounds.

Walking with the advanced reciprocating gait orthosis (ARGO) in thoracic paraplegic patients: energy expenditure and cardiorespiratory performance

The aim of this study was to quantify the energy cost and the cardiorespiratory response while walking at free speed with an Advanced Reciprocating Gait Orthosis (ARGO). The study was conducted on a group of six male paraplegic patients, age range 16-31 years (median = 22.50), with complete traumatic injuries ranging from T3 to T12 and a median time lapse from the trauma of 21 months. The data was recorded 6-8 weeks after the patients were fitted and trained to use the orthosis. Maintaining a standing position produced a significant increase of both the heart rate (HR) and the respiratory rate (RR), whilst the increase of energy consumption was not significant. The data for median speed, energy consumption and energy cost observed during free walking was similar to that of the Reciprocating Gait Orthosis (RGO) in thoracic level paraplegic individuals. This study indicates that in the utilisation of the ARGO the workload is not excessive when it is limited to maintaining a standing position. In contrast, walking results in early anaerobic conditions and unsustainable fatigue after short distances. The great energy cost recorded is considered to be a main reason for the frequent abandonment or the low utilisation of the orthosis at follow-up.

Novel 3-aralkyl-7-(amino-substituted)-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidines with high affinity toward A1 adenosine receptors

Three series of several 1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidine derivatives bearing various amino substituents at the 7 position and one of three lipophilic substituents at the 3 position (benzyl, phenethyl, or 2-chlorobenzyl) were prepared starting from the corresponding 7-chloro compounds, by nucleophilic substitution by the appropriate amine. Radioligand binding assays at bovine brain adenosine A1 and A2A receptors showed that some compounds possessed a high affinity and selectivity for the A1 receptor subtype. In particular the biological results suggested the compounds bearing cycloalkylamino (cyclopentyl- and cyclohexylamino) or aralkylamino (alpha-methylbenzyl- and 1-methyl-2-phenylethylamino or amphetamino) substituents at the 7 position were the most active derivatives. The best lipophilic substituent at the 3 position was the 2-chlorobenzyl (A1 affinity Ki < 50 nM) followed by the benzyl and then the phenethyl groups. This pattern of structure-activity relationship (SAR) was similar to that previously reported for analogous 1,2,3-triazolopyridazino derivatives (Biagi et al., 1994, 1995, 1996) except for the compounds bearing substituted aromatic amines which presented a generalized and strong decrease of the A1 receptor affinity. These facts allowed us to attribute to these molecules a binding mode within the A1 adenosine receptor analogous to that of the corresponding triazolopyridazines.

Binding of the benzodiazepine ligand [3H]-Ro 15-1788 to brain membrane of the saltwater fish Mullus surmuletus

The distribution and the pharmacological properties of the binding of the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist [3H]-Ro 15-1788 (8-fluoro-3-carboethoxy-5,6-dihydro-5-methyl-6-oxo-4H imidazol [1,5-a] 1,4 benzodiazepine) were compared in some brain membranes of the saltwater teleost fish, Mullus surmuletus: only a single population of [3H]-Ro 15-1788 binding sites was detected. The binding was saturable and reversible with a high affinity, revealing a significant population of binding sites (Kd value of 2.1 +/- 0.2 nM and Bmax value of 1400-900 fmol mg-1 of protein, depending on fish length). The highest concentration of benzodiazepine recognition sites labelled with [3H]-Ro 15-1788 was present in the optic lobe and the olfactory bulb and the lowest concentration was found in the medulla oblongata, cerebellum and spinal cord. In order to explore behavioural selectivity as a consequence of multiple receptor subtypes, six benzodiazepine receptor ligands, flunitrazepam (5-(2-fluoro-phenyl)-1,3-dihydro-1-methyl-7-nitro-2H-1, 4-benzodiazepin-2-one), alpidem, (N,N-dipropyl-6-chloro-2-(4-chlorophenyl)imidazo [1,2-a] pyridine-3- acetamide) zolpidem {N,N,6, trimethyl-2-(4-methyl-phenyl) imidazo [1,2-a] pyridine-3-acetamide hemitartrate}, methyl beta carboline-3-carboxylate (beta CCM), Ro 15-1788 and Ro 5-4864 (4'-chlorodiazepam), were tested in vitro by binding of [3H]-Ro 15-1788 to membrane preparations from various brain areas of Mullus surmuletus, Displacement studies showed a similar rank order of efficacy of various unlabelled ligands. In all regions of the brain and in the spinal cord. GABA potentiate [3H]-flunitrazepam binding in a similar order, suggesting that the BDZ recognition sites are part of the GABAA receptor structure. These results suggest that central-type benzodiazepine receptors are present in one class of benzodiazepine binding sites in the saltwater teleost fish brain of Mullus surmuletus (type I-like). Here we report initial evidence of homogeneity of subtypes of central benzodiazepine receptors in the spinal cord of the saltwater teleost fish. Mullus surmuletus.

The serotonin transporter from human brain: purification and partial characterization

The serotonin (5-HT) transporter from human striatum was solubilized by digitonin and purified by affinity chromatography. The native protein-detergent complex had a molecular mass of 205 kDa, as estimated by gel-exclusion chromatography of the eluates obtained from affinity chromatography. The purified 5-HT transporter migrated as a single band of 67 kDa in SDS-PAGE. To clarify the spatial relationships between the binding sites of the tricyclic antidepressants, as [3H]-imipramine, and of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, as [3H]-paroxetine, on the 5'HT transporter, both radioligands were used to label it in the purification steps. [3H]-paroxetine bound with the same affinity to a single high-affinity site on both membrane and purified preparations. [3H]-imipramine labeled a high- and a low-affinity site on parent membranes, whereas it bound to a single high-affinity site on the purified extract. Tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and 5-HT itself displaced [3H]-paroxetine and [3H-]imipramine from their high-affinity binding sites on both the membrane-bound and the purified 5-HT transporter in a monophasic fashion with Hill coefficients close to unity. Furthermore, both [3H]-paroxetine and [3H]-imipramine displayed a similar maximum binding capacity on an identical protein of 205 kDa. Our results suggest overlapping binding sites for tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and 5-HT on the 5-HT transporter.

Improved method for polyamine determination in TMV, a rod-shaped virus

Polyamines were measured in viruses using different techniques. An improved method of polyamine analysis is reported for tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), a rod-shaped virus (95% protein and 5% RNA), based on HPLC of sonicated PCA-treated highly purified virus suspensions. This method allowed higher and more reliable recovery of TMV polyamines (putrescine, spermidine and spermine) when compared to the HPLC of non-sonicated samples and to thin layer chromatography. It is suggested that sonication acts on PCA-precipitated protein aggregates causing the release of trapped polyamine molecules.