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Wood ME, Edwards WH, Jennings-Gaines JE, Gaston M, Van Wick P, Amundson S, Allen SE, Wolfe LL. Clearance of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae in Captive Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis) Following Extended Oral Doxycycline Treatment. J Wildl Dis 2023; 59:753-758. [PMID: 37578752 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-22-00094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory disease is a significant barrier for bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) conservation, and a need remains for management options in both captive and free-ranging populations. We treated Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae infection in six bighorn lambs and five bighorn yearlings at two captive research facilities with twice daily oral doxycycline for 8 wk or longer. Doses of 5 mg/kg twice daily mixed in formula for lambs and 10 mg/kg twice daily mixed in moistened pellets for older lambs and yearlings were tolerated well with minimal side effects. All animals in this case report remain Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae free over 2 yr later. Further evaluation is warranted to confirm efficacy of this therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Wood
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Program, 4330 Laporte Ave., Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, USA
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Veterinary Services, 1212 S. Adams St., Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA
| | - William H Edwards
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Veterinary Services, Wildlife Health Laboratory, 1174 Snowy Range Rd., Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA
| | - Jessica E Jennings-Gaines
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Veterinary Services, Wildlife Health Laboratory, 1174 Snowy Range Rd., Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA
| | - Mariah Gaston
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Veterinary Services, Thorne-Williams Wildlife Research Center, 2362 WY-34, Wheatland, Wyoming 82201, USA
| | - Peach Van Wick
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Veterinary Services, Thorne-Williams Wildlife Research Center, 2362 WY-34, Wheatland, Wyoming 82201, USA
| | - Sierra Amundson
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Program, 4330 Laporte Ave., Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, USA
| | - Samantha E Allen
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Veterinary Services, 1212 S. Adams St., Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA
| | - Lisa L Wolfe
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Program, 4330 Laporte Ave., Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, USA
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2
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Fisher MC, Prioreschi RA, Wolfe LL, Runge JP, Griffin KA, Swanson HM, Miller MW. Apparent stability masks underlying change in a mule deer herd with unmanaged chronic wasting disease. Commun Biol 2022; 5:15. [PMID: 35017638 PMCID: PMC8752592 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02951-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The contagious prion disease "chronic wasting disease" (CWD) infects mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and related species. Unchecked epidemics raise ecological, socioeconomic, and public health concerns. Prion infection shortens a deer's lifespan, and when prevalence (proportion of adults infected) becomes sufficiently high CWD can affect herd dynamics. Understanding population responses over time is key to forecasting long-term impacts. Here we describe unexpected stability in prevalence and abundance in a mule deer herd where CWD has been left unmanaged. High apparent prevalence (~30%) since at least 2005 likely drove observed changes in the proportion and age distribution of wild-type native prion protein (PRNP) gene homozygotes among deer sampled. Predation by mountain lions (Puma concolor) may be helping keep CWD in check. Despite stable appearances, prion disease nonetheless impairs adult survival and likely resilience in this deer herd, limiting its potential for growth despite refuge from hunter harvest and favorable habitat and winter conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark C Fisher
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, 4330 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80521-2153, USA
| | - Ryan A Prioreschi
- City of Boulder Open Space and Mountain Parks, 66 South Cherryvale Road, Boulder, Colorado, 80302, USA
| | - Lisa L Wolfe
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, 4330 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80521-2153, USA
| | - Jonathan P Runge
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, 4330 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80521-2153, USA
| | - Karen A Griffin
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, 4330 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80521-2153, USA
| | - Heather M Swanson
- City of Boulder Open Space and Mountain Parks, 66 South Cherryvale Road, Boulder, Colorado, 80302, USA
| | - Michael W Miller
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, 4330 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80521-2153, USA.
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3
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Dunford CE, Marks NJ, Wilmers CC, Bryce CM, Nickel B, Wolfe LL, Scantlebury DM, Williams TM. Surviving in steep terrain: a lab-to-field assessment of locomotor costs for wild mountain lions ( Puma concolor). Mov Ecol 2020; 8:34. [PMID: 32782806 PMCID: PMC7414561 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-020-00215-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Under current scenarios of climate change and habitat loss, many wild animals, especially large predators, are moving into novel energetically challenging environments. Consequently, changes in terrain associated with such moves may heighten energetic costs and effect the decline of populations in new localities. METHODS To examine locomotor costs of a large carnivorous mammal moving in mountainous habitats, the oxygen consumption of captive pumas (Puma concolor) was measured during treadmill locomotion on level and incline (6.8°) surfaces. These data were used to predict energetic costs of locomotor behaviours of free-ranging pumas equipped with GPS/accelerometer collars in California's Santa Cruz Mountains. RESULTS Incline walking resulted in a 42.0% ± 7.2 SEM increase in the costs of transport compared to level performance. Pumas negotiated steep terrain by traversing across hillsides (mean hill incline 17.2° ± 0.3 SEM; mean path incline 7.3° ± 0.1 SEM). Pumas also walked more slowly up steeper paths, thereby minimizing the energetic impact of vertical terrains. Estimated daily energy expenditure (DEE) based on GPS-derived speeds of free-ranging pumas was 18.3 MJ day- 1 ± 0.2 SEM. Calculations show that a 20 degree increase in mean steepness of the terrain would increase puma DEE by less than 1% as they only spend a small proportion (10%) of their day travelling. They also avoided elevated costs by utilizing slower speeds and shallower path angles. CONCLUSIONS While many factors influence survival in novel habitats, we illustrate the importance of behaviours which reduce locomotor costs when traversing new, energetically challenging environments, and demonstrate that these behaviours are utilised by pumas in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn E. Dunford
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute of Global Food Security, Queen’s University of Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL Northern Ireland
| | - Nikki J. Marks
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute of Global Food Security, Queen’s University of Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL Northern Ireland
| | - Christopher C. Wilmers
- Center for Integrated Spatial Research, Environmental Studies Department, University of California- Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA
| | | | - Barry Nickel
- Center for Integrated Spatial Research, Environmental Studies Department, University of California- Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA
| | - Lisa L. Wolfe
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Program, 4330 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80521-2153 USA
| | - D. Michael Scantlebury
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute of Global Food Security, Queen’s University of Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast, BT9 5DL Northern Ireland
| | - Terrie M. Williams
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Coastal Biology Building, 130 McAllister Way, University of California- Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 USA
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4
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Dannemiller NG, Horak KE, Ellis JW, Barrett NL, Wolfe LL, Shriner SA. Effects of External Oiling and Rehabilitation on Hematological, Biochemical, and Blood Gas Analytes in Ring-Billed Gulls ( Larus delawarensis). Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:405. [PMID: 31803767 PMCID: PMC6877692 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian species experience extensive morbidity and mortality following large-scale oil spills, often resulting in oiled birds being rescued, and admitted to rehabilitation. Our objective was to experimentally establish time-specific, descriptive blood analyte data following sublethal oil exposure and subsequent rehabilitation. Thirty wild Ring-billed Gulls (Larus delawarensis) were randomly allocated to three treatment groups of 10 birds each. One treatment group served as controls and two treatment groups were externally oiled daily for 3 days with weathered MC252 oil collected from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, mimicking the upper threshold of the US Fish and Wildlife Service's moderate oiling classification. Following external oiling, one oiled treatment group was cleaned via standard rehabilitation practices. Serial venous blood samples were collected for a month to measure packed cell volume, total solids, blood gas and select plasma biochemistry analytes, total white blood cell estimates and differentials, and reticulocyte estimates. We found that both sublethal oil exposure and aspects of captivity were associated with a mild non-regenerative anemia. No other differences in venous blood gas and biochemical analytes as well as white blood cell concentrations were observed among the three groups. These findings suggest that the mild anemia seen in oiled birds undergoing rehabilitation is possibly multifactorial and that moderately oiled gulls have subtle, but potentially not insignificant clinicopathological abnormalities following sublethal oil exposure. Oiled gulls did not develop any clinicopathological derangements post-rehabilitation, suggesting current standard practices for rehabilitation cause minimal morbidity in clinically stable, moderately oiled gulls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas G Dannemiller
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, United States.,Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Katherine E Horak
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Jeremy W Ellis
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Nicole L Barrett
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Lisa L Wolfe
- Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Susan A Shriner
- US Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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Fox KA, Kopanke JH, Lee JS, Wolfe LL, Pabilonia KL, Mayo CE. Bovine viral diarrhea in captive Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep associated with administration of a contaminated modified-live bluetongue virus vaccine. J Vet Diagn Invest 2018; 31:107-112. [PMID: 30541417 DOI: 10.1177/1040638718814583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In late summer 2017, we observed acute, fatal cases of bovine viral diarrhea in captive Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis canadensis) in Colorado following use of a contaminated modified-live bluetongue virus vaccine. Following vaccination, at least 14 of 28 (50%) vaccinated bighorn sheep developed hemorrhagic diarrhea, and 6 of 28 (21%) vaccinated bighorn sheep died. Autopsy findings were predominantly necroulcerative-to-necrohemorrhagic gastrointestinal lesions. Less frequent lesions included suffusive hemorrhages of serosal surfaces of abdominal viscera, and lymphoid necrosis in gut-associated lymphoid tissues. All of the 6 bighorn sheep that died were positive on real-time PCR (rtPCR) for bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in multiple tissues. Seroconversion to BVDV-1 and immunohistochemistry for BVDV in affected tissues confirmed rtPCR results. Next-generation sequencing confirmed a match between the infecting strain of BVDV-1b and the contaminated vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen A Fox
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO (Fox, Wolfe)
- Colorado State University Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO (Kopanke, Lee, Pabilonia, Mayo)
| | - Jennifer H Kopanke
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO (Fox, Wolfe)
- Colorado State University Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO (Kopanke, Lee, Pabilonia, Mayo)
| | - Justin S Lee
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO (Fox, Wolfe)
- Colorado State University Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO (Kopanke, Lee, Pabilonia, Mayo)
| | - Lisa L Wolfe
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO (Fox, Wolfe)
- Colorado State University Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO (Kopanke, Lee, Pabilonia, Mayo)
| | - Kristy L Pabilonia
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO (Fox, Wolfe)
- Colorado State University Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO (Kopanke, Lee, Pabilonia, Mayo)
| | - Christie E Mayo
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO (Fox, Wolfe)
- Colorado State University Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Fort Collins, CO (Kopanke, Lee, Pabilonia, Mayo)
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Wolfe LL, Johnson HE, Fisher MC, Lance WR, Smith DK, Miller MW. Chemical immobilization in American black bears using a combination of nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone. URSUS 2016. [DOI: 10.2192/ursus-d-15-00018.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Bergman EJ, Doherty PF, Bishop CJ, Wolfe LL, Banulis BA. Herbivore body condition response in altered environments: mule deer and habitat management. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106374. [PMID: 25184410 PMCID: PMC4153590 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationships between habitat, body condition, life history characteristics, and fitness components of ungulates are interwoven and of interest to researchers as they strive to understand the impacts of a changing environment. With the increased availability of portable ultrasound machines and the refinement of hormonal assays, assessment of ungulate body condition has become an accessible monitoring strategy. We employed body condition scoring, estimation of % ingesta-free body fat (%IFBF), assessment of free thyroid hormones (FT4 and FT3), and assessment of pregnancy, as metrics to determine if landscape-level habitat treatments affected body condition of adult (≥1.5 years old) female mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). All body condition related metrics were measured on 2 neighboring study areas — a reference area that had received no habitat treatments and a treatment study area that had received mechanical removal of pinyon pine (Pinyus edulis) - Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) forest, chemical control of weeds, and reseeding with preferred mule deer browse species. A consistent trend of higher %IFBF was observed in the treatment study area than in the reference study area , although variation of estimates was larger than hypothesized. A similar pattern was observed with higher thyroid hormones concentrations being observed in the treatment study area, but large amounts of variation within concentration estimates were also observed. The consistent pattern of higher body condition related estimates in our treatment study area provides evidence that large mammalian species are sensitive to landscape change, although variation within estimates underlie the challenge in detecting population level impacts stemming from environmental change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J. Bergman
- Mammals Research, Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Paul F. Doherty
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Chad J. Bishop
- Mammals Research, Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Lisa L. Wolfe
- Mammals Research, Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Bradley A. Banulis
- Terrestrial Programs, Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Montrose, Colorado, United States of America
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Tamgüney G, Richt JA, Hamir AN, Greenlee JJ, Miller MW, Wolfe LL, Sirochman TM, Young AJ, Glidden DV, Johnson NL, Giles K, DeArmond SJ, Prusiner SB. Salivary prions in sheep and deer. Prion 2012; 6:52-61. [PMID: 22453179 DOI: 10.4161/pri.6.1.16984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Scrapie of sheep and chronic wasting disease (CWD) of cervids are transmissible prion diseases. Milk and placenta have been identified as sources of scrapie prions but do not explain horizontal transmission. In contrast, CWD prions have been reported in saliva, urine and feces, which are thought to be responsible for horizontal transmission. While the titers of CWD prions have been measured in feces, levels in saliva or urine are unknown. Because sheep produce ~17 L/day of saliva, and scrapie prions are present in tongue and salivary glands of infected sheep, we asked if scrapie prions are shed in saliva. We inoculated transgenic (Tg) mice expressing ovine prion protein, Tg(OvPrP) mice, with saliva from seven Cheviot sheep with scrapie. Six of seven samples transmitted prions to Tg(OvPrP) mice with titers of -0.5 to 1.7 log ID₅₀ U/ml. Similarly, inoculation of saliva samples from two mule deer with CWD transmitted prions to Tg(ElkPrP) mice with titers of -1.1 to -0.4 log ID₅₀ U/ml. Assuming similar shedding kinetics for salivary prions as those for fecal prions of deer, we estimated the secreted salivary prion dose over a 10-mo period to be as high as 8.4 log ID₅₀ units for sheep and 7.0 log ID₅₀ units for deer. These estimates are similar to 7.9 log ID₅₀ units of fecal CWD prions for deer. Because saliva is mostly swallowed, salivary prions may reinfect tissues of the gastrointestinal tract and contribute to fecal prion shedding. Salivary prions shed into the environment provide an additional mechanism for horizontal prion transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gültekin Tamgüney
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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9
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Fox KA, Wootton SK, Quackenbush SL, Wolfe LL, Levan IK, Miller MW, Spraker TR. Paranasal sinus masses of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis). Vet Pathol 2010; 48:706-12. [PMID: 20926735 DOI: 10.1177/0300985810383873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This article describes 10 cases of paranasal sinus masses in Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis). Among 21 bighorns that were examined from 11 herds in Colorado, 10 individuals (48%) from 4 herds (36%) had masses arising from the paranasal sinuses. Affected animals included 9 of 17 females (53%) and 1 of 4 males (25%), ranging in age from approximately 2 years to greater than 10 years. Defining gross features of these masses included unilateral or bilateral diffuse thickening of the respiratory lining of the maxillary and/or frontal sinuses, with abundant seromucinous exudate in the affected sinus cavities. Defining histologic features of these masses included chronic inflammation and proliferation of mesenchymal and epithelial cells of the mucosa and submucosa. Epithelial changes included hyperplasia of mucosal epithelium, hyperplasia of submucosal glands and ducts, and neoplasia (adenocarcinoma). Mesenchymal changes included submucosal myxedema, submucosal fibroplasia/fibrosis, bone destruction, and neoplasia (myxomatous fibroma). Specific immunohistochemistry and polymerase chain reaction for Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus and enzootic nasal tumor virus were performed with negative results.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Fox
- Department of Microbiology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
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10
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Contagious prion diseases--scrapie of sheep and chronic wasting disease of several species in the deer family--give rise to epidemics that seem capable of compromising host population viability. Despite this prospect, the ecological consequences of prion disease epidemics in natural populations have received little consideration. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Using a cohort study design, we found that prion infection dramatically lowered survival of free-ranging adult (>2-year-old) mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus): estimated average life expectancy was 5.2 additional years for uninfected deer but only 1.6 additional years for infected deer. Prion infection also increased nearly fourfold the rate of mountain lions (Puma concolor) preying on deer, suggesting that epidemics may alter predator-prey dynamics by facilitating hunting success. Despite selective predation, about one fourth of the adult deer we sampled were infected. High prevalence and low survival of infected deer provided a plausible explanation for the marked decline in this deer population since the 1980s. CONCLUSION Remarkably high infection rates sustained in the face of intense predation show that even seemingly complete ecosystems may offer little resistance to the spread and persistence of contagious prion diseases. Moreover, the depression of infected populations may lead to local imbalances in food webs and nutrient cycling in ecosystems in which deer are important herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Miller
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America.
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11
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Wolfe LL, Spraker TR, González L, Dagleish MP, Sirochman TM, Brown JC, Jeffrey M, Miller MW. PrPCWD in rectal lymphoid tissue of deer (Odocoileus spp.). J Gen Virol 2007; 88:2078-2082. [PMID: 17554043 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82342-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The utility of rectal lymphoid tissue sampling for the diagnosis of chronic wasting disease (CWD) infections in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) was evaluated. CWD-associated prion protein (PrP(CWD)) deposits were observed in the rectal mucosa from 19 orally inoculated mule deer by 381 days post-inoculation (p.i.); similarly, 45 out of 50 naturally infected mule deer had PrP(CWD) in their rectal mucosa. In orally inoculated white-tailed deer, the presence of glycine (G) or serine (S) at codon 96 of the native PrP (denoted 96GG, 96GS or 96SS) appeared to influence the temporal patterns of PrP(CWD) deposition: nine out of 11 infected 96GG individuals had PrP(CWD) in their rectal mucosa by 342 days p.i., whereas only three out of seven infected 96GS individuals had PrP(CWD) in their rectal mucosa by 381 days p.i. and none of three 96SS individuals had PrP(CWD) in their rectal mucosa by 751 days p.i. These findings support further evaluation of rectal mucosa sampling in CWD surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa L Wolfe
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO 80526-2097, USA
| | - Terry R Spraker
- Colorado State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Lorenzo González
- Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Lasswade, Pentlands Science Park, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Mark P Dagleish
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Tracey M Sirochman
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Avenue, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO 80526-2097, USA
| | - Jeremy C Brown
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Wyoming, 1174 Snowy Range Road, Laramie, WY 82070, USA
| | - Martin Jeffrey
- Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Lasswade, Pentlands Science Park, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Michael W Miller
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO 80526-2097, USA
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12
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Farnsworth ML, Hoeting JA, Hobbs NT, Conner MM, Burnham KP, Wolfe LL, Williams ES, Theobald DM, Miller MW. The role of geographic information systems in wildlife landscape epidemiology: models of chronic wasting disease in Colorado mule deer. Vet Ital 2007; 43:581-593. [PMID: 20422537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The authors present findings from two landscape epidemiology studies of chronic wasting disease (CWD) in northern Colorado mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). First, the effects of human land use on disease prevalence were explored by formulating a set of models estimating CWD prevalence in relation to differences in human land use, sex and geographic location. Prevalence was higher in developed areas and among male deer suggesting that anthropogenic influences (changes in land use), differences in exposure risk between sexes and landscape-scaled heterogeneity are associated with CWD prevalence. The second study focused on identifying scales of mule deer movement and mixing that had the greatest influence on the spatial pattern of CWD in north-central Colorado. The authors hypothesised that three scales of mixing - individual, winter subpopulation and summer subpopulation - might control spatial variation in disease prevalence. A fully Bayesian hierarchical model was developed to compare the strength of evidence for each mixing scale. Strong evidence was found indicating that the finest mixing scale corresponded best to the observed spatial distribution of CWD prevalence. This analysis demonstrates how information on the scales of spatial processes that generate observed patterns can be used to gain insight into the epidemiology of wildlife diseases when process data are sparse or unavailable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L Farnsworth
- Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1499, United States of America.
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13
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Chang B, Cheng X, Yin S, Pan T, Zhang H, Wong P, Kang SC, Xiao F, Yan H, Li C, Wolfe LL, Miller MW, Wisniewski T, Greene MI, Sy MS. Test for detection of disease-associated prion aggregate in the blood of infected but asymptomatic animals. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2006; 14:36-43. [PMID: 17079434 PMCID: PMC1797712 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00341-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a sensitive in vitro assay for detecting disease-associated prion aggregates by combining an aggregation-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (AS-ELISA) with the fluorescent amplification catalyzed by T7 RNA polymerase technique (FACTT). The new assay, named aggregation-specific FACTT (AS-FACTT), is much more sensitive than AS-ELISA and could detect prion aggregates in the brain of mice as early as 7 days after an intraperitoneal inoculation of PrP(Sc). However, AS-FACTT was still unable to detect prion aggregates in blood of infected mice. To further improve the detection limit of AS-FACTT, we added an additional prion amplification step (Am) and developed a third-generation assay, termed Am-A-FACTT. Am-A-FACTT has 100% sensitivity and specificity in detecting disease-associated prion aggregates in blood of infected mice at late but still asymptomatic stages of disease. At a very early stage, Am-A-FACTT had a sensitivity of 50% and a specificity of 100%. Most importantly, Am-A-FACTT also detects prion aggregates in blood of mule deer infected with the agent causing a naturally occurring prion disease, chronic wasting disease. Application of this assay to cattle, sheep, and humans could safeguard food supplies and prevent human contagion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binggong Chang
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Xin Cheng
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Shaoman Yin
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Tao Pan
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Hongtao Zhang
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Poki Wong
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Shin-Chung Kang
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Fan Xiao
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Huimin Yan
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Chaoyang Li
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Lisa L. Wolfe
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Michael W. Miller
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Mark I. Greene
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Man-Sun Sy
- Institute of Pathology School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44107-1712, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6082, Modern Virology Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China, Wildlife Health Program, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, Department of Neurology, Psychiatry and Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
- Corresponding author. Mailing address: Room 5131, Wolstein Bldg., School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 2103 Cornell Rd., Cleveland, OH 44120. Phone: (216) 368-1268. Fax: (216) 368-1357. E-mail:
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14
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Mathiason CK, Powers JG, Dahmes SJ, Osborn DA, Miller KV, Warren RJ, Mason GL, Hays SA, Hayes-Klug J, Seelig DM, Wild MA, Wolfe LL, Spraker TR, Miller MW, Sigurdson CJ, Telling GC, Hoover EA. Infectious prions in the saliva and blood of deer with chronic wasting disease. Science 2006; 314:133-6. [PMID: 17023660 DOI: 10.1126/science.1132661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 343] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
A critical concern in the transmission of prion diseases, including chronic wasting disease (CWD) of cervids, is the potential presence of prions in body fluids. To address this issue directly, we exposed cohorts of CWD-naïve deer to saliva, blood, or urine and feces from CWD-positive deer. We found infectious prions capable of transmitting CWD in saliva (by the oral route) and in blood (by transfusion). The results help to explain the facile transmission of CWD among cervids and prompt caution concerning contact with body fluids in prion infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candace K Mathiason
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences (CVMBS), Colorado State University (CSU), Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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15
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Abstract
Inadvertent ingestion of thiafentanil oxalate by a captive adult female mountain lion (Puma concolor) caused a prolonged clinical syndrome that included sedation and depression, muscle tension, and myopathy that was incompletely antagonized by naltrexone HCl. A serum chemistry profile revealed markedly elevated creatinine phosphokinase (CK; 490,450 IU/l), alanine aminotransferase (ALT; 1,896 IU/l), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST; 4,321 IU/l) 2 days after onset. The affected animal's condition gradually improved over the next 15 days in response to supportive therapy that included diazepam (5 mg as needed), Normasol R (3 l/day), dexamethasone (tapering dose starting at 1 mg/kg), and ketoprofen (1 mg/kg). She eventually recovered completely. Based on these observations, carcasses of animals immobilized with thiafentanil should be marked and disposed of properly to preclude opportunities for secondary exposure and potential intoxication in scavenging species. In addition, caution is advised when using thiafentanil in animals that could be preyed upon before full metabolism of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa L Wolfe
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2097, USA.
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16
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Jewell JE, Conner MM, Wolfe LL, Miller MW, Williams ES. Low frequency of PrP genotype 225SF among free-ranging mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) with chronic wasting disease. J Gen Virol 2005; 86:2127-2134. [PMID: 16033959 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81077-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The prion protein (PrP) gene was characterized in 1482 free-ranging mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) from Wyoming and Colorado. Using DNA sequences from 363 deer, dimorphisms at codons 20 (aspartate/glycine) and 225 [serine (S)/phenylalanine (F)] were found; silent changes occurred at codons 131 (tyrosine) and 247 (isoleucine). The remaining samples were surveyed for codon 225 genotype and all were characterized for chronic wasting disease (CWD) infection status. A total of 112 deer with the genotype 225SF or FF were found, of which one was CWD-positive; 1370 were 225SS, with 289 positive for CWD. Among CWD-negative deer, the frequency of 225SF/FF genotypes was 9.3 % but among CWD-positive deer it was only 0.3 %. For all samples combined, CWD status was not independent of codon 225 genotype (P<0.0001). The odds that a deer of the 225SS genotype was CWD-infected were 30 times greater (95 % confidence intervals=4-213) than for a 225SF deer. The proportion of 225SF animals in sampled subpopulations varied from 0 to 18 %; the CWD prevalence varied from 0 to 25 %. However, no relationship was observed between genotype frequency and CWD prevalence in different areas. The PrP sequences of experimentally infected mule deer were analysed from pre-existing projects and 10 animals were found with 225SF genotypes, all of which were positive for CWD. Data available from some of these animals suggest that the 225SF genotype could be associated with longer incubation periods in CWD infection compared with the 225SS genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean E Jewell
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Wyoming, Wyoming State Veterinary Laboratory, 1174 Snowy Range Road, Laramie, WY 82070, USA
| | - Mary M Conner
- Department of Forest, Range, and Wildlife Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5230, USA
| | - Lisa L Wolfe
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO 80526-2097, USA
| | - Michael W Miller
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO 80526-2097, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Williams
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Wyoming, Wyoming State Veterinary Laboratory, 1174 Snowy Range Road, Laramie, WY 82070, USA
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17
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Abstract
Whether transmission of the chronic wasting disease (CWD) prion among cervids requires direct interaction with infected animals has been unclear. We report that CWD can be transmitted to susceptible animals indirectly, from environments contaminated by excreta or decomposed carcasses. Under experimental conditions, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) became infected in two of three paddocks containing naturally infected deer, in two of three paddocks where infected deer carcasses had decomposed in situ =1.8 years earlier, and in one of three paddocks where infected deer had last resided 2.2 years earlier. Indirect transmission and environmental persistence of infectious prions will complicate efforts to control CWD and perhaps other animal prion diseases.
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18
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Abstract
We evaluated thiafentanil oxalate (A-3080) for the immobilization of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) under laboratory and field conditions. In a crossover experiment comparing recommended (0.1 mg/kg) and 2x recommended thiafentanil doses in captive deer, both produced rapid induction and immobilization. Mean induction was shorter (P = 0.013) for the 2x group (1.9 vs. 3 min); mean reversals for both groups were rapid (recommended = 0.9 min after naltrexone injection; 2x = 1 min) and did not differ (P = 0.29). Six free-ranging mule deer were immobilized with 7 mg thiafentanil and four with 10 mg; mean induction was 2.3 min for both groups (95% confidence interval [CI]: 7 mg, 1.2-3.4; 10 mg, 1.9-2.8), and mean reversal was <1 min for both groups. Of 165 free-ranging deer darted with various combinations of thiafentanil and xylazine, we successfully immobilized 148 (90%). Mean induction ranged from 2.1 to 4.9 min for different drug combinations. Reversals were not compared because naltrexone and yohimbine doses varied, but overall mean reversal was 1.9 min (95% CI, 1.7-2.1 min) after injection of naltrexone and yohimbine intravenously (i.v.); naltrexone:thiafentanil ratios ranging from 10:1 to 43:1 provided mean recoveries ranging from 1.5 to 2.3 min. All 25 deer fitted with radio collars were alive at 30 days postcapture. On the basis of overall reliability and effectiveness, drug volumes, and ease of handling drugged animals, we recommend using a combination of 10-12 mg thiafentanil (0.15-0.2 mg/kg) and 100 mg xylazine to immobilize mule deer; immobilization can be effectively reversed with 100 mg naltrexone or more and 15 mg yohimbine or more i.v. Where feasible, we also recommend the use of transmitter darts when immobilizing mule deer with opioids in order to maximize recovery of darted deer and to ensure that missed darts are found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa L Wolfe
- Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, 317 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526, USA.
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Wolfe LL, Conner MM, Baker TH, Dreitz VJ, Burnham KP, Williams ES, Hobbs NT, Miller MW. Evaluation of Antemortem Sampling to Estimate Chronic Wasting Disease Prevalence in Free-Ranging Mule Deer. J Wildl Manage 2002. [DOI: 10.2307/3803124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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