Effects of Whole-Grain and Sugar Content in Infant Cereals on Gut Microbiota at Weaning: A Randomized Trial

The introduction of complementary foods during infancy marks an important step in the development of the infant gut microbiome. Infant cereals are popular weaning foods but consistent evidence on their effect on the intestinal microbiota, especially when differing in nutritional quality, is lacking. Fecal samples from 4–7-month-old Spanish infants who consumed infant cereals differing in whole grain and sugar content as first weaning foods were analyzed on changes in microbial composition by massively parallel sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene at baseline and after 7 weeks of intervention. Samples were obtained from a previous trial conducted in Spain demonstrating whole-grain cereal acceptability. In total, samples of 18 infants consuming 0% whole grain cereals with 24 g sugar (0-WG) and 25 infants consuming 50% whole grain cereals with 12 g sugar (50-WG) were analyzed. Microbial composition changed significantly over time (p = 0.001), per intervention group (p = 0.029) and per infant (p = 0.001). Abundance of genus Veillonella increased in both groups while Enterococcus decreased. Within the 0-WG group, phylum Actinobacteria decreased along with genus Bifidobacterium. In the 50-WG, we observed an increase in Lachnoclostridium and Bacteroides. In addition, 50-WG decreased Proteobacteria and Escherichia to levels lower than 0-WG. Although weaning itself appeared to be responsible for most changes, the increased presence of anaerobic fermenters together with inhibition of pathogenic Escherichia may indicate a supporting effect of infant cereals with 50% whole grains and a reduced sugar content over infant cereals manufactured with refined hydrolyzed flours on the infant microbiota. In fact, using a novel methodology for the identification of microbial signatures, we found two groups of microbial taxa predictive of infants consuming enriched whole-grain infant cereals with a high predictive value of about 93%.

Are Homemade and Commercial Infant Foods Different? A Nutritional Profile and Food Variety Analysis in Spain

Complementary feeding (CF) is an important determinant of early and later life nutrition with great implications for the health status and the development of an adequate growth. Parents can choose between homemade foods (HMFs) and/or commercial infant foods (CIFs). There is no consistent evidence as to whether HMFs provide a better nutritional profile and variety over CIFs. The aim of this study was to compare the nutritional profiles and food variety of HMFs versus CIFs in the Spanish market targeted for infants (6-11 months) and young children (12-18 months). Thirty mothers with their children aged 6 to 18 months were included in this cross-sectional study, following a 3-day weighed food diary of which HMFs were collected and chemically analyzed. HMFs meals for infant provided significantly lower energy, higher protein and higher fiber, for young children provided significantly higher protein and fiber than CIFs meals. HMFs fruit purees for infant shown significantly higher fiber and for young children provided higher energy than CIFs. HMFs meals contained a significantly greater number of different vegetables than CIFs meals (3.7 vs. 3.3), with carrot as the most frequently used in both. However, in CIFs fruit purees shown higher different fruits than HMFs, in both the banana was the fruit most frequently used. There was a predominance of meat and lack of oily fish and legumes in both HMFs and CIFs meals. HMFs and CIFs were equally characterized by a soft texture and yellow-orange colours. Importantly, our findings emphasize the need for clear guidelines for the preparation of HMFs as well as the promotion of food variety (taste and textures) in both HMFs and CIFs to suit infants' and young children's nutritional and developmental needs.

Cholesterol Content in Human Milk during Lactation: A Comparative Study of Enzymatic and Chromatographic Methods

This study validates a gas chromatography (GC) method for determining the sterol profile of human milk (HM) and compares it with an enzymatic-spectrophotometric (E-S) method. Good linearity ( r > 0.97) and low limits of detection and quantification were obtained with the GC method (<1.8 and <6 μg/100 g of HM, respectively). Suitable intra- and interassay precisions (all <18%) and satisfactory recovery percentages (80-109%) were obtained for both methods. In addition, both methodologies were used to assess cholesterol evolution in HM during lactation, showing a 50% decrease at 6 months versus colostrum. The E-S method overestimated cholesterol content by <20% versus the GC method. The results indicate that both methods may be used by the industry and in research to better understand the differences between the sterol profiles of infant formulas and HM.

Sterols in Infant Formulas: A Bioaccessibility Study

The design of infant formulas (IFs) seeks to resemble human milk (HM) composition and functionality. The fat sources used usually comprise vegetable oil blends to mimic the fatty acid composition of HM and introduce changes in the animal/plant sterol ratio. In contrast, the use of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM)-rich ingredients could improve this aspect by increasing the ratio. The present study evaluates the bioaccessibility (BA) of sterols (cholesterol, desmosterol, brassicasterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol) in three IFs (with or without MFGM) using an in vitro digestion method simulating infant conditions. Analytical parameters confirmed the suitability of the method for all of these sterols. Results showed the presence of MFGM to increase cholesterol content (6-7 vs 2 mg/100 mL), this being the most bioaccessible sterol in the IFs. Although the BA of cholesterol was reduced in MFGM-enriched IF (65.6-80.4% vs 99.7%), the intake of bioaccessible cholesterol from these IFs was higher.

Sterols in human milk during lactation: bioaccessibility and estimated intakes

Total sterol content decreased to the half throughout lactation, being their intake lower at colostrum and its bioaccessibility higher at first month.

Sensory Acceptability of Infant Cereals with Whole Grain in Infants and Young Children

In many countries, infant cereals are one of the first foods introduced during the complementary feeding stage. These cereals are usually made with refined cereal flours, even though several health benefits have been linked to the intake of whole grain cereals. Prior evidence suggests that food preferences are developed at early stages of life, and may persist in later childhood and adulthood. Our aim was to test whether an infant cereal with 30% of whole grain was similarly accepted both by parents and infants in comparison to a similar cereal made from refined flour. A total of 81 infants between 4 and 24 months old were included in the study. Parent-infant pairs participated in an 8-day experimental study. Acceptance was rated on hedonic scales (4-points for infants and 7-points for parents). Other attributes like color, smell, and taste were evaluated by the parents. Acceptability for infant cereals with whole grain and refined cereals was very similar both for infants (2.30 ± 0.12 and 2.32 ± 0.11, p = 0.606) and parents (6.1 ± 0.8 and 6.0 ± 0.9, p = 0.494). Therefore, our findings show that there is an opportunity to introduce whole grain cereals to infants, including those who are already used to consuming refined infant cereals, thereby accelerating the exposure of whole grain in early life.

Evaluation of Sialic Acid in Infant Feeding: Contents and Bioavailability

Sialic acid (Sia) contents and bioaccessibility (BA) in human milk (HM) and infant formulas (IFs) were determined, and Sia intakes by infants between 0 and 6 months of age were evaluated. Total Sia contents in HM decreased during lactation from 136.14 to 24.47 mg/100 mL. The total Sia contents in IFs (13.15-25.78 mg/100 mL) were lower than in HM and were not related to the addition of ingredients acting as sources of Sia in their formulation. The Sia intakes derived from IF consumption were lower than in HM, and only one IF reached the intakes provided by HM from the age of 2 months. Despite the lower total Sia content in IFs, the BA of Sia in IFs (88.08-92.96%) was significantly greater than in mature HM (72.51%) and similar to that found in colostrum (96.43%). However, the Sia contents in the available soluble fraction of IFs did not reach those provided by HM.

Sterol Composition in Infant Formulas and Estimated Intake

Sterol contents in infant formulas (IFs) from the European market were determined, and their intakes by infants between 0 and 6 months were evaluated. Total animal sterols (mg/100 mL) ranged from 1.71 to 5.46, cholesterol being the main animal sterol (1.46-5.1). In general, cholesterol and desmosterol were lower than the human milk (HM) values indicated by other authors. Total plant sterol (mg/100 mL) ranged from 3.1 to 5.0. β-Sitosterol, the most abundant phytosterol, ranged from 1.82 to 3.01, followed by campesterol (0.72-1.15), stigmasterol (0.27-0.53), and brassicasterol (0.14-0.28). Cholesterol intake (mg/day) ranged from 9 to 51 and plant sterol intake (mg/day) from 19 to 50. The sterol profile of IFs is highly dependent on the type and quantity of fats used in their formula. The use of bovine milk fat and milk fat globule membrane in the IFs can approximate the profile of animal sterols to those found in HM, though cholesterol intakes in breastfed infants are still higher than in formula-fed infants.