Computation of daily Penman–Monteith reference evapotranspiration in the Carpathian Region and comparison with Thornthwaite estimates

Abstract. The Pannonian Basin Experiment (PannEx) is a Regional Hydroclimate Project (RHP) of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Global Energy and Water Exchanges (GEWEX) Project. A gridded meteorological dataset is available for the PannEx region as part of the CarpatClim database, which consists of homogenized and harmonized daily meteorological observations for several climate parameters with 0.1∘ spatial resolution in the period of 1961–2010. The estimation of the Penman–Monteith reference evapotranspiration (ET0) on the daily scale was performed for the CarpatClim grid as one of the first results in the PannEx initiative. This study compares the already accessible Thornthwaite estimates of potential evapotranspiration (PET_Th) on the monthly scale to the newly derived Penman–Monteith estimates. The comparison is made on an annual and seasonal basis for the 50-year period. The distribution of both estimates is influenced by geographical location and orographic features. The annual time series are similar but the regional-average annual values of ET0 are ∼80 mm greater than the Thornthwaite estimate in the whole CarpatClim region. The relative bias and root mean square error was computed as well. The classical Thornthwaite method underestimates the ET0 by more than 20 % over extensive regions for selected grid points at elevations lower than 200 m in the Pannonian Basin. The slope of the fitted linear trend indicate increasing reference evapotranspiration in the Pannonian/Carpathian Basin due to climate change.

S-layer protein-AuNP systems for the colorimetric detection of metal and metalloid ions in water

Bacterial surface layer proteins (S-layer) possess unique binding properties for metal ions. By combining the binding capability of S-layer proteins with the optical properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNP), namely plasmonic resonance, a colorimetric detection system for metal and metalloid ions in water was developed. Eight S-layer proteins from different bacteria species were used for the functionalization of AuNP. The thus developed biohybrid systems, AuNP functionalized with S-layer proteins, were tested with different metal salt solutions, e.g. Indium(III)-chloride, Yttrium(III)-chloride or Nickel(II)-chloride, to determine their selective and sensitive binding to ionic analytes. All tested S-layer proteins displayed unique binding affinities for the different metal ions. For each S-layer and metal ion combination markedly different reaction patterns and differences in concentration range and absorption spectra were detected by UV/vis spectroscopy. In this way, the selective detection of tested metal ions was achieved by differentiated analysis of a colorimetric screening assay of these biohybrid systems. A highly selective and sensitive detection of yttrium ions down to a concentration of 1.67 × 10^-5 mol/l was achieved with S-layer protein SslA functionalized AuNP. The presented biohybrid systems can thus be used as a sensitive and fast sensor system for metal and metalloid ions in aqueous systems.

Mapping monthly rainfall erosivity in Europe

Rainfall erosivity as a dynamic factor of soil loss by water erosion is modelled intra-annually for the first time at European scale. The development of Rainfall Erosivity Database at European Scale (REDES) and its 2015 update with the extension to monthly component allowed to develop monthly and seasonal R-factor maps and assess rainfall erosivity both spatially and temporally. During winter months, significant rainfall erosivity is present only in part of the Mediterranean countries. A sudden increase of erosivity occurs in major part of European Union (except Mediterranean basin, western part of Britain and Ireland) in May and the highest values are registered during summer months. Starting from September, R-factor has a decreasing trend. The mean rainfall erosivity in summer is almost 4 times higher (315MJmmha^-1h^-1) compared to winter (87MJmmha^-1h^-1). The Cubist model has been selected among various statistical models to perform the spatial interpolation due to its excellent performance, ability to model non-linearity and interpretability. The monthly prediction is an order more difficult than the annual one as it is limited by the number of covariates and, for consistency, the sum of all months has to be close to annual erosivity. The performance of the Cubist models proved to be generally high, resulting in R² values between 0.40 and 0.64 in cross-validation. The obtained months show an increasing trend of erosivity occurring from winter to summer starting from western to Eastern Europe. The maps also show a clear delineation of areas with different erosivity seasonal patterns, whose spatial outline was evidenced by cluster analysis. The monthly erosivity maps can be used to develop composite indicators that map both intra-annual variability and concentration of erosive events. Consequently, spatio-temporal mapping of rainfall erosivity permits to identify the months and the areas with highest risk of soil loss where conservation measures should be applied in different seasons of the year.

Reply to the comment on "Rainfall erosivity in Europe" by Auerswald et al

Recently, in the Auerswald et al. (2015) comment on "Rainfall erosivity in Europe", 5 criticisms were addressed: i) the neglect of seasonal erosion indices, ii) the neglect of published studies and data, iii) the low temporal resolution of the data, especially of the maximum rain intensity, iv) the use of precipitation data instead of rain data and the subsequent deviation of the R-factor in Germany and Austria compared with previous studies, and v) the differences in considered time periods between countries. We reply as follows: (i) An evaluation of the seasonal erosion index at the European scale is, to our knowledge, not achievable at present with the available data but would be a future goal. Synchronous publication of the seasonal erosion index is not mandatory, specifically because seasonal soil loss ratios are not available at this scale to date. We are looking forward to the appropriate study by the authors of the comment, who assert that they have access to the required data. (ii) We discuss and evaluate relevant studies in our original work and in this reply; however, we cannot consider what is not available to the scientific community. (iii) The third point of critique was based on a misunderstanding by Auerswald et al. (2015), as we did indeed calculate the maximum intensity with the highest resolution of data available. (iv) The low R-factor values in Germany and the higher values in Austria compared with previous studies are not due to the involvement of snow but are rather due to a Pan-European interpolation. We argue that an interpolation across the borders of Austria creates a more reliable data set. (v) We agree that the use of a short time series or time series from different periods is generally a problem in all large-scale studies and requires improvement in the future. However, because this affects countries with a rather low variability of the R-factor in our study, we are confident that the overall results of the map are not biased. In conclusion, the Pan-European rainfall data compilation (REDES) was a great success and yielded data from 1541 stations with an average length of 17.1years and a temporal resolution of <60min. However, a Pan-European data collection will never be complete without the help and supply of data from its users. Thus, we invite the authors of the comment to share their data in the open REDES to help build even better rainfall-erosivity maps at regional or European scales.

Induction of apoptosis in human cancer cells by targeting mitochondria with gold nanoparticles

A major challenge in designing cancer therapies is the induction of cancer cell apoptosis, although activation of intrinsic apoptotic pathways by targeting gold nanoparticles to mitochondria is promising. We report an in vitro procedure targeting mitochondria with conjugated gold nanoparticles and investigating effects on apoptosis induction in the human breast cancer cell line Jimt-1. Gold nanoparticles were conjugated to a variant of turbo green fluorescent protein (mitoTGFP) harbouring an amino-terminal mitochondrial localization signal. Au nanoparticle conjugates were further complexed with cationic maltotriose-modified poly(propylene imine) third generation dendrimers. Fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy revealed that Au nanoparticle conjugates were directed to mitochondria upon transfection, causing partial rupture of the outer mitochondrial membrane, triggering cell death. The ability to target Au nanoparticles into mitochondria of breast cancer cells and induce apoptosis reveals an alternative application of Au nanoparticles in photothermal therapy of cancer.

Rainfall erosivity in Europe

Rainfall is one the main drivers of soil erosion. The erosive force of rainfall is expressed as rainfall erosivity. Rainfall erosivity considers the rainfall amount and intensity, and is most commonly expressed as the R-factor in the USLE model and its revised version, RUSLE. At national and continental levels, the scarce availability of data obliges soil erosion modellers to estimate this factor based on rainfall data with only low temporal resolution (daily, monthly, annual averages). The purpose of this study is to assess rainfall erosivity in Europe in the form of the RUSLE R-factor, based on the best available datasets. Data have been collected from 1541 precipitation stations in all European Union (EU) Member States and Switzerland, with temporal resolutions of 5 to 60 min. The R-factor values calculated from precipitation data of different temporal resolutions were normalised to R-factor values with temporal resolutions of 30 min using linear regression functions. Precipitation time series ranged from a minimum of 5 years to a maximum of 40 years. The average time series per precipitation station is around 17.1 years, the most datasets including the first decade of the 21st century. Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) has been used to interpolate the R-factor station values to a European rainfall erosivity map at 1 km resolution. The covariates used for the R-factor interpolation were climatic data (total precipitation, seasonal precipitation, precipitation of driest/wettest months, average temperature), elevation and latitude/longitude. The mean R-factor for the EU plus Switzerland is 722 MJ mm ha(-1) h(-1) yr(-1), with the highest values (>1000 MJ mm ha(-1) h(-1) yr(-1)) in the Mediterranean and alpine regions and the lowest (<500 MJ mm ha(-1) h(-1) yr(-1)) in the Nordic countries. The erosivity density (erosivity normalised to annual precipitation amounts) was also the highest in Mediterranean regions which implies high risk for erosive events and floods.

An overview of drought events in the Carpathian Region in 1961–2010

Abstract. The Carpathians and their rich biosphere are considered to be highly vulnerable to climate change. Drought is one of the major climate-related damaging natural phenomena and in Europe it has been occurring with increasing frequency, intensity, and duration in the last decades. Due to climate change, land cover changes, and intensive land use, the Carpathian Region is one of the areas at highest drought risk in Europe. In order to analyze the drought events over the last 50 yr in the area, we used a 1961–2010 daily gridded temperature and precipitation dataset. From this, monthly 0.1° × 0.1° grids of four drought indicators (Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), Reconnaissance Drought Indicator (RDI), and Palfai Aridity/Drought Index (PADI)) have been calculated. SPI, SPEI, and RDI have been computed at different time scales (3, 6, and 12 months), whilst PADI has been computed on an annual basis. The dataset used in this paper has been constructed in the framework of the CARPATCLIM project, run by a consortium of institutions from 9 countries (Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Ukraine) with scientific support by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission. Temperature and precipitation station data have been collected, quality-checked, completed, homogenized, and interpolated on the 0.1° × 0.1° grid, and drought indicators have been consequently calculated on the grid itself. Monthly and annual series of the cited indicators are presented, together with high-resolution maps and statistical analysis of their correlation. A list of drought events between 1961 and 2010, based on the agreement of the indicators, is presented. We also discuss three case studies: drought in 1990, 2000, and 2003. The drought indicators have been compared both on spatial and temporal scales: it resulted that SPI, SPEI, and RDI are highly comparable, especially over a 12-month accumulation period. SPEI, which includes PET (Potential Evapo-Transpiration) as RDI does, proved to perform best if drought is caused by heat waves, whilst SPI performed best if drought is mainly driven by a rainfall deficit, because SPEI and RDI can be extreme in dry periods. According to PADI, the Carpathian Region has a sufficient natural water supply on average, with some spots that fall into the ''mild dry'' class, and this is also confirmed by the FAO-UNEP aridity index and the Köppen-Geiger climate classification.

Delta(18)O characteristics of lichens and their effects on evaporative processes of the subjacent soil

The study presents first data on the delta(18)O performance of poikilohydrous lichen ground cover, and its potential impact on the isotopic composition of water fluxes arising from subjacent soil layers. As a model organism, the globally distributed lichen Cladina arbuscula was studied under laboratory conditions as well as in the field. During a desiccation experiment, delta(18)O of the lichen's thallus water and of its respired CO(2) became enriched by approximately 7 per thousand and followed a similar enrichment pattern to that expected from homoiohydrous, vascular plants. However, the observed degree of enrichment was lower in comparison to vascular plants due to (i) the lichen's inherent lower evaporative resistances; and (ii) a stronger effect of the more depleted surrounding water vapour. In lichens growing in their natural habitat, this specific pattern may show substantial variations depending on prevailing microclimatic conditions. Within a field study, thallus water delta(18)O of lichens principally proved to become more depleted when close to equilibration with the surroundings. It thereby strongly depended on the absorption of surrounding water vapour. Moreover, the results indicate that lichen mats substantially reduce evaporation rates arising from subjacent soil layers, and may alter the isotopic signal of vapour diffusing away from these layers into more depleted values.

Mutation scanning of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in renal and liver transplant patients in Hungary

INTRODUCTION

The increased incidence of malignancies among transplanted patients is well known. Abnormal function of the p53 tumor suppressor gene has been reported in more than half of all tumors. The aim of our study was to detect point mutations of p53 gene in transplanted patients because the presence of mutations may be a predictive factor for tumor development. An earlier diagnosis can help to develop new strategies for immunosuppressive therapies.

METHODS

Three point mutations were chosen based on the literature: exon5-codon175, exon7-codon248, exon8-codon273. Genomic DNA from the plasma of 60 liver, 362 renal transplants, and 45 nontransplanted patients with different tumors and 20 suspected healthy patients were analyzed with a real-time PCR method using the Roche LightCycler. The mutations were evaluated by melting curve analysis.

RESULTS

We elaborated a special protocol for scanning the above mentioned p53 point mutations, which were proved by sequencing as well. Among 487 patients, 486 showed a wild-type genotype. The only patient carrying a mutation at codon 273 (heterozygous) was a liver transplant patient, who developed pancreas carcinoma and had already died.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that mutations of the targeted codons in leukocyte DNA seem to be rare, but a mutation could be lethal. The evaluated three point mutations of p53 gene were not predictive for tumor development.

Photocycle of dried acid purple form of bacteriorhodopsin

The photocycle of dried bacteriorhodopsin, pretreated in a 0.3 M HCl solution, was studied. Some properties of this dried sample resemble that of the acid purple suspension: the retinal conformation is mostly all-trans, 15-anti form, the spectrum of the sample is blue-shifted by 5 nm to 560 nm, and it has a truncated photocycle. After photoexcitation, a K-like red-shifted intermediate appears, which decays to the ground state through several intermediates with spectra between the K and the ground state. There are no other bacteriorhodopsin-like intermediates (L, M, N, O) present in the photocycle. The K to K' transition proceeds with an enthalpy decrease, whereas during all the following steps, the entropic energy of the system decreases. The electric response signal of the oriented sample has only negative components, which relaxes to zero. These suggest that the steps after intermediate K represent a relaxation process, during which the absorbed energy is dissipated and the protein returns to its original ground state. The initial charge separation on the retinal is followed by limited charge rearrangements in the protein, and later, all these relax. The decay times of the intermediates are strongly influenced by the humidity of the sample. Double-flash experiments proved that all the intermediates are directly driven back to the ground state. The study of the dried acid purple samples could help in understanding the fast primary processes of the protein function. It may also have importance in technical applications.

[Qualitative and quantitative detection of hepatitis C virus RNA by PCR technique. Monitoring of viral copies after liver transplantation]

The authors demonstrate the HCV nucleic acid amplification method is not wide-spread in Hungary yet. The HCV-RNA is usually detectable 2-4 weeks after infection independently the immunostate of the patients. The authors help to select the adequate measurement(s) in logical order when HCV infection is suspected. The benefit of the PCR method is emphasized. Monitoring of the HCV-RNA titer of the liver transplanted patients promotes to establish the fluctuation of HCV-RNA copies and the effectivity of therapy following transplantation. The detection of HCV-RNA by PCR method is a proof of an acute or chronic infection and rules out past infection. The quantitative PCR measurement is useful for determination of indication and control of efficacy of antiviral therapy.

Cardiac rotation and relaxation after anterolateral myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Both systolic and diastolic dysfunction have been observed in patients with anterolateral myocardial infarction. Diastolic dysfunction is related to disturbances in relaxation and diastolic filling.

OBJECTIVE

To analyse cardiac rotation, regional shortening and diastolic relaxation in patients with anterolateral infarction.

METHODS

Cardiac rotation and relaxation in controls and patients with chronic anterolateral infarction were assessed by myocardial tagging. Myocardial tagging is based on magnetic resonance imaging and allows us to label specific myocardial regions for imaging cardiac motion (rotation, translation and radial displacement). A rectangular grid was placed on the myocardium (basal, equatorial and apical short-axis plane) of each of 18 patients with chronic anterolateral infarction and 13 controls. Cardiac rotation, change in area and shortening of circumference were determined in each case.

RESULTS

The left ventricle in controls performs a systolic wringing motion with a clockwise rotation at the base and a counterclockwise rotation at the apex when viewed from the apex. During relaxation a rotational motion in the opposite direction (namely untwisting) can be observed. In patients with anterolateral infarction, there is less systolic rotation at the apex and diastolic untwisting is delayed and prolonged in comparison with controls. In the presence of a left ventricular aneurysm (n = 4) apical rotation is completely lost. There is less shortening of circumference in infarcted and remote regions.

CONCLUSIONS

The wringing motion of the myocardium might be an important mechanism involved in maintaining normal cardiac function with minimal expenditure of energy. This mechanism no longer operates in patients with left ventricular aneurysms and operates significantly less than normal in those with anterolateral hypokinaesia. Diastolic untwisting is significantly delayed and prolonged in patients with anterolateral infarction, which could explain the occurrence of diastolic dysfunction in these patients.

[Diagnostic value of glutathione-S-transferase]

The authors evaluated the diagnostic value of the glutathione-S-transferase (GST) enzyme in the medical practice. The GST is widely distributed in human tissues, the majority of the enzyme protein is present in the cytoplasm. GST plays a pivotal protective role against the environmental damages. It can be made a conclusion from the quantity, the localization of the enzyme expression and enzyme forms to the degree of chemical insult suffered by the organism. The increase of alpha GST izoenzyme can reflect the degree of the hepatocellular and renal proximal tubular epithelium damage. The overexpression of pi-class GST represents the injury of bile epithelium and renal distal tubules. Overexpression of GST is associated with tumor appearances and with resistance to cytostatic agents. It was possible to took the enzyme izoenzymes apart, to identify them--hereby to explore their origin--and to detect their quantity with the development of the separation techniques, the immunological and genetical methods. Since the enzyme expression is in direct proportion to the magnitude organs and tissues damage or/and the presence of specific izoenzymes suspects tumor formation, for this reason the monitoring of the GST expression could give a help for the physicians in creating the diagnosis.

Discharge videotaping: a means of augmenting occupational and physical therapy

Regional burn centers commonly receive patients from medical facilities that are geographically distant. Logistic problems that may hamper follow-up care in the burn center can lead to a decrease in function as a result of contractures and hypertrophic scar formation. Inexperience on the part of therapists at community facilities serves to intensify this problem. Discharge videotaping, with respect to physical and occupational therapy programs, is a means of documenting range of motion at the time of discharge and providing visual documentation of the therapy program to be followed on an outpatient basis. The video tapes are forwarded to the outlying community hospital's therapy department in order to accomplish these goals.

Clinical, epidemiological and therapeutical experience with human tularaemia: the role of hamster hunters

Fifty patients suffering from tularaemia were treated in our department. The most frequent occupation of the tularaemia patients was hamster hunter. The most important source of the tularaemic infection (90%) was the hamster (Cricetus cricetus). We observed the cutano-glandular form in 90% of the patients and internal tularaemia in 10%. The antibiotics used (streptomycin i. m., oxytetracycline and doxycycline per os) were effective.

Treatment of human leptospira infections with semicillin (ampicillin) or with amoxil (amoxycillin)

Ampicillin (Semicillin) and Amoxycillin (Amoxil) have a strong leptospirocidal effect in vitro and also in vivo. We have tested these drugs on 28 patients suffering from Leptospira infection. The patients generally received per os 3 g Ampicillin (Semicillin) or 2 g Amoxycillin (Amoxil) per day over a period of 6 days. In the groups treated with Ampicillin and Amoxycillin the average durations of fever during the treatment were 1.6 and 1.2 days, respectively. In the first group (Ampicillin) a 'second wave of fever' occurred in one case (5%) and in the second group (Amoxycillin), in 0% (as compared to 22% after treatment with benzylpenicillin). On the basis of our experiences, Ampicillin and Amoxycillin are strongly recommended for the treatment of human Leptospira infections.