Mutable Collagenous Tissue: A Concept Generator for Biomimetic Materials and Devices

Echinoderms (starfish, sea-urchins and their close relations) possess a unique type of collagenous tissue that is innervated by the motor nervous system and whose mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and elastic stiffness, can be altered in a time frame of seconds. Intensive research on echinoderm 'mutable collagenous tissue' (MCT) began over 50 years ago, and over 20 years ago, MCT first inspired a biomimetic design. MCT, and sea-cucumber dermis in particular, is now a major source of ideas for the development of new mechanically adaptable materials and devices with applications in diverse areas including biomedical science, chemical engineering and robotics. In this review, after an up-to-date account of present knowledge of the structural, physiological and molecular adaptations of MCT and the mechanisms responsible for its variable tensile properties, we focus on MCT as a concept generator surveying biomimetic systems inspired by MCT biology, showing that these include both bio-derived developments (same function, analogous operating principles) and technology-derived developments (same function, different operating principles), and suggest a strategy for the further exploitation of this promising biological resource.

Morphological and Physiological Aspects of Mutable Collagenous Tissue at the Autotomy Plane of the Starfish Asterias rubens L. (Echinodermata, Asteroidea): An Echinoderm Paradigm

The mutable collagenous tissue (MCT) of echinoderms has the capacity to undergo changes in its tensile properties within a timescale of seconds under the control of the nervous system. All echinoderm autotomy (defensive self-detachment) mechanisms depend on the extreme destabilisation of mutable collagenous structures at the plane of separation. This review illustrates the role of MCT in autotomy by bringing together previously published and new information on the basal arm autotomy plane of the starfish Asterias rubens L. It focuses on the MCT components of breakage zones in the dorsolateral and ambulacral regions of the body wall, and details data on their structural organisation and physiology. Information is also provided on the extrinsic stomach retractor apparatus whose involvement in autotomy has not been previously recognised. We show that the arm autotomy plane of A. rubens is a tractable model system for addressing outstanding problems in MCT biology. It is amenable to in vitro pharmacological investigations using isolated preparations and provides an opportunity for the application of comparative proteomic analysis and other “-omics” methods which are aimed at the molecular profiling of different mechanical states and characterising effector cell functions.

Studying Echinodermata Arm Explant Regeneration Using Echinaster sepositus

Echinoderms are marine invertebrate deuterostomes known for their amazing regenerative abilities throughout all life stages. Though some species can undergo whole-body regeneration (WBR), others exhibit more restricted regenerative capabilities. Asteroidea (starfish) comprise one of the few echinoderm taxa capable of undergoing WBR. Indeed, some starfish species can restore all tissues and organs not only during larval stages, but also from arm fragments as adults. Arm explants have been used to study cells, tissues and genes involved in starfish regeneration. Here, we describe methods for obtaining and studying regeneration of arm explants in starfish, in particular animal collection and husbandry, preparation of arm explants, regeneration tests, microscopic anatomy techniques (including transmission electron microscopy, TEM) used to analyze the regenerating explant tissues and cells plus a downstream RNA extraction protocol needed for subsequent molecular investigations.

Marine-derived collagen biomaterials from echinoderm connective tissues

The use of marine collagens is a hot topic in the field of tissue engineering. Echinoderms possess unique connective tissues (Mutable Collagenous Tissues, MCTs) which can represent an innovative source of collagen to develop collagen barrier-membranes for Guided Tissue Regeneration (GTR). In the present work we used MCTs from different echinoderm models (sea urchin, starfish and sea cucumber) to produce echinoderm-derived collagen membranes (EDCMs). Commercial membranes for GTR or soluble/reassembled (fibrillar) bovine collagen substrates were used as controls. The three EDCMs were similar among each other in terms of structure and mechanical performances and were much thinner and mechanically more resistant than the commercial membranes. Number of fibroblasts seeded on sea-urchin membranes were comparable to the bovine collagen substrates. Cell morphology on all EDCMs was similar to that of structurally comparable (reassembled) bovine collagen substrates. Overall, echinoderms, and sea urchins particularly, are alternative collagen sources to produce efficient GTR membranes. Sea urchins display a further advantage in terms of eco-sustainability by recycling tissues from food wastes.

Re-growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation during starfish arm regeneration

The red starfish Echinaster sepositus is an excellent model for studying arm regeneration processes following traumatic amputation. The initial repair phase was described in a previous paper in terms of the early cicatrisation phenomena, and tissue and cell involvement. In this work, we attempt to provide a further comprehensive description of the later regenerative stages in this species. Here, we present the results of a detailed microscopic and submicroscopic investigation of the long regenerative phase, which can be subdivided into two subphases: early and advanced regenerative phases. The early regenerative phase (1-6 weeks p.a.) is characterized by tissue rearrangement, morphogenetic processes and initial differentiation events (mainly neurogenesis and skeletogenesis). The advanced regenerative phase (after 6 weeks p.a.) is characterized by further differentiation processes (early myogenesis), and obvious morphogenesis and re-growth of the regenerate. As in other starfish, the regenerative process in E. sepositus is relatively slow in comparison with that of crinoids and many ophiuroids, which is usually interpreted as resulting mainly from size-related aspects and of the more conspicuous involvement of morphallactic processes. Light and electron microscopy analyses suggest that some of the amputated structures, such as muscles, are not able to replace their missing parts by directly re-growing them from the remaining tissues, whereas others tissues, such as the skeleton and the radial nerve cord, appear to undergo direct re-growth. The overall process is in agreement with the distalization-intercalation model proposed by Agata and co-workers. Further experiments are needed to confirm this hypothesis.

Wound repair during arm regeneration in the red starfish Echinaster sepositus

Starfish can regenerate entire arms following their loss by both autotomic and traumatic amputation. Although the overall regenerative process has been studied several times in different asteroid species, there is still a considerable gap of knowledge as far as the detailed aspects of the repair phase at tissue and cellular level are concerned, particularly in post-traumatic regeneration. The present work is focused on the arm regeneration model in the Mediterranean red starfish Echinaster sepositus; to describe the early cellular mechanisms of arm regeneration following traumatic amputation, different microscopy techniques were employed. In E. sepositus, the repair phase was characterized by prompt wound healing by a syncytial network of phagocytes and re-epithelialisation followed by a localized subepidermal oedematous area formation. Scattered and apparently undifferentiated cells, intermixed with numerous phagocytes, were frequently found in the wound area during these first stages of regeneration and extensive dedifferentiation phenomena were seen at the level of the stump, particularly in the muscle bundles. A true localized blastema did not form. Our results confirm that regeneration in asteroids mainly relies on morphallactic processes, consisting in extensive rearrangement of the existing tissues which contribute to the new tissues through cell dedifferentiation, redifferentiation, and/or migration.

Mechanical properties of the compass depressors of the sea-urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Echinodermata, Echinoidea) and the effects of enzymes, neurotransmitters and synthetic tensilin-like protein

The compass depressors (CDs) of the sea-urchin lantern are ligaments consisting mainly of discontinuous collagen fibrils associated with a small population of myocytes. They are mutable collagenous structures, which can change their mechanical properties rapidly and reversibly under nervous control. The aims of this investigation were to characterise the baseline (i.e. unmanipulated) static mechanical properties of the CDs of Paracentrotus lividus by means of creep tests and incremental force-extension tests, and to determine the effects on their mechanical behaviour of a range of agents. Under constant load the CDs exhibited a three-phase creep curve, the mean coefficient of viscosity being 561±365 MPa.s. The stress-strain curve showed toe, linear and yield regions; the mean strain at the toe-linear inflection was 0.86±0.61; the mean Young's modulus was 18.62±10.30 MPa; and the mean tensile strength was 8.14±5.73 MPa. Hyaluronidase from Streptomyces hyalurolyticus had no effect on creep behaviour, whilst chondroitinase ABC prolonged primary creep but had no effect on secondary creep or on any force-extension parameters; it thus appears that neither hyaluronic acid nor sulphated glycosaminoglycans have an interfibrillar load transfer function in the CD. Acetylcholine, the muscarinic agonists arecoline and methacholine, and the nicotinic agonists nicotine and 1-[1-(3,4-dimethyl-phenyl)-ethyl]-piperazine produced an abrupt increase in CD viscosity; the CDs were not differentially sensitive to muscarinic or nicotinic agonists. CDs showed either no, or no consistent, response to adrenaline, L-glutamic acid, 5-hydroxytryptamine and γ-aminobutyric acid. Synthetic echinoid tensilin-like protein had a weak and inconsistent stiffening effect, indicating that, in contrast to holothurian tensilins, the echinoid molecule may not be involved in the regulation of collagenous tissue tensility. We compare in detail the mechanical behaviour of the CD with that of mammalian tendon and highlight its potential as a model system for investigating poorly understood aspects of the ontogeny and phylogeny of vertebrate collagenous tissues.

Primary cell cultures from sea urchin ovaries: a new experimental tool

In the present work, primary cell cultures from ovaries of the edible sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus were developed in order to provide a simple and versatile experimental tool for researches in echinoderm reproductive biology. Ovary cell phenotypes were identified and characterized by different microscopic techniques. Although cell cultures could be produced from ovaries at all stages of maturation, the cells appeared healthier and viable, displaying a higher survival rate, when ovaries at early stages of gametogenesis were used. In terms of culture medium, ovarian cells were successfully cultured in modified Leibovitz-15 medium, whereas poor results were obtained in minimum essential medium Eagle and medium 199. Different substrates were tested, but ovarian cells completely adhered only on poly-L-lysine. To improve in vitro conditions and stimulate cell proliferation, different serum-supplements were tested. Fetal calf serum and an originally developed pluteus extract were detrimental to cell survival, apparently accelerating processes of cell death. In contrast, cells cultured with sea urchin egg extract appeared larger and healthier, displaying an increased longevity that allowed maintaining them for up to 1 month. Overall, our study provides new experimental bases and procedures for producing successfully long-term primary cell cultures from sea urchin ovaries offering a good potential to study echinoid oogenesis in a controlled system and to investigate different aspects of echinoderm endocrinology and reproductive biology.

The elusive role of L-glutamate as an echinoderm neurotransmitter: evidence for its involvement in the control of crinoid arm muscles

Although l-glutamate is the most widespread excitatory neurotransmitter in vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems, there is only sparse evidence that it has this role in echinoderms. Following our previous finding that l-glutamate is widely distributed in the arms of the featherstar (crinoid echinoderm) Antedon mediterranea and initiates arm autotomy (defensive detachment), we now provide evidence of glutamatergic involvement in the control of the arm muscles of the same species using immunocytochemical and physiological methods. Immunofluorescence and immunoenzymatic techniques, which employed the same polyclonal antibody against l-glutamate conjugated to glutaraldehyde, revealed a high level of glutamate-like reactivity in the brachial muscles. By recording the mechanical responses of isolated arm pieces, we found that l-glutamate, l-aspartate and elevated [K(+)](o) induced rhythmic muscle contractions, while glycine, γ-aminobutyric acid, adrenaline and acetylcholine had either no, or no consistent, effect. The frequency and duration of the dominant component of the rhythmic contractions indicated that these may be responsible for the rhythmic activity of the arms that occurs during swimming and after autotomy. We conclude that it is highly likely that l-glutamate has at least a neuromodulatory role in the neural pathways controlling the brachial muscles of A. mediterranea.

Lessons learned from implementing education on dual-use in Austria, Italy, Pakistan and Sweden

This paper provides insights into the achievements and challenges of implementing education on dual-use in four countries: Austria, Italy, Pakistan and Sweden. It draws attention to the different institutional mechanisms through which dual-use education may be introduced into academic curricula and some of the difficulties encountered in this process. It concludes that there is no 'one size fits all' approach to the implementation of dual-use education. Rather, initiatives must be tailored to suit the teaching traditions, geographical and historical context in which they are being delivered. However, a number of common principles and themes can be derived from all four cases. All these courses bring together a number of different topics that place 'dual-use' in the broader context of biosafety, biosecurity, ethics, law and the environment. The case studies suggest that success in this area depends largely on the leadership and commitment of individuals directly involved in teaching, who are active within the scientific community.

Chemical fate and biological effects of several endocrine disrupters compounds in two echinoderm species

Two echinoderm species, the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus and the feather star Antedon mediterranea, were exposed for 28 days to several EDCs: three putative androgenic compounds, triphenyltin (TPT), fenarimol (FEN), methyltestosterone (MET), and two putative antiandrogenic compounds, p,p'-DDE (DDE) and cyproterone acetate (CPA). The exposure nominal concentrations were from 10 to 3000 ng L(-1), depending on the compound. This paper is an attempt to join three different aspects coming from our ecotoxicological tests: (1) the chemical behaviour inside the experimental system; (2) the measured toxicological endpoints; (3) the biochemical responses, to which the measured endpoints may depend. The chemical fate of the different compounds was enquired by a modelling approach throughout the application of the 'Aquarium model'. An estimation of the day-to-day concentration levels in water and biota were obtained together with the amount assumed each day by each animal (uptake in microg animal(-1) d(-1) or ng g-wet weight(-1) d(-1)). The toxicological endpoints investigated deal with the reproductive potential (gonad maturation stage, gonad index and oocyte diameter) and with the regenerative potential (growth and histology). Almost all the compounds exerted some kind of effect at the tested concentrations, however TPT was the most effective in altering both reproductive and regenerative parameters (also at the concentration of few ng L(-1)). The biochemical analyses of testosterone (T) and 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) also showed the ability of the selected compounds to significantly alter endogenous steroid concentrations.

Triphenyltin alters androgen metabolism in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus

Androgen metabolism (androstenedione and testosterone) has been assessed in the digestive tube and gonads of the echinoderm Paracentrotus lividus exposed to different concentrations of the biocide triphenyltin (TPT) in a semi-static water regime for 4 weeks. Key enzymatic activities involved in both synthesis and metabolism of androgens, namely 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17beta-HSDs), 3beta-HSDs, 5alpha-reductases, P450-aromatase, palmitoyl-CoA:testosterone acyltransferases (ATAT) and testosterone sulfotransferases (SULT), were investigated in digestive tube and/or gonads of control and TPT-exposed specimens in an attempt to see whether androgen metabolism was altered by exposure. In agreement with previous data for vertebrates, exposure to TPT led to a concentration dependent decrease of P450-aromatase that was statistically significant at the highest TPT concentration tested (225ng/L). Additionally, increased metabolism of testosterone to form dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and 5alpha-androstane-3beta,17beta-diol was observed, suggesting increased 5alpha-reductase activity in the gonads of TPT-exposed individuals. Interestingly, exposure to TPT induced testosterone conjugating activities in organisms exposed to medium (SULT) and high (ATAT and SULT) TPT concentrations. Despite the changes of androgen metabolizing enzymes, testosterone levels in gonads remained rather stable. In contrast, an increase in testosterone and a concomitant decrease in estradiol were observed in the coelomic fluid of TPT-exposed organisms. Overall, the data indicate the ability of TPT to modulate androgen metabolism and circulating steroid levels in P. lividus and suggest the existence of regulatory mechanisms to maintain stable endogenous levels of testosterone in gonads. This study also contributes to a better knowledge of echinoderm endocrinology.

Steroid levels in crinoid echinoderms are altered by exposure to model endocrine disruptors

Sexual steroids (testosterone and estradiol) were measured in the whole body of wild specimens of the crinoid Antedon mediterranea collected from the Tyrrhenian Sea (Italy). Testosterone levels (274-1,488 pg/g wet weight (w.w.)) were higher than those of estradiol (60-442 pg/g w.w.) and no significant differences between males and females were observed. No clear seasonal trend was either detected - individuals from February, June and October 2004 analyzed - apart from a peak of estradiol in males in autumn. Nonetheless, dramatic changes on tissue steroid levels were observed when individuals were exposed to model androgenic and anti-androgenic compounds for 2 and 4 weeks. The selected compounds were 17 alpha-methyltestosterone (17 alpha-MT), triphenyltin (TPT), fenarimol (FEN), cyproterone acetate (CPA), and p,p'-DDE. Endogenous testosterone levels were significantly increased after exposure to 17 alpha-MT, TPT and FEN, while different responses were observed for estradiol; 17 alpha-MT and FEN increased endogenous estradiol (up to seven-fold), and TPT lead to a significant decrease. Concerning the anti-androgenic compounds, CPA significantly reduced testosterone in a dose-dependent manner without altering estradiol levels, whereas specimens exposed to p,p'-DDE at a low dose (24 ng/L) for 4 weeks showed a four-fold increase in T levels. Overall, the data show the ability of the selected compounds to alter endogenous steroid concentrations in A. mediterranea, and suggest the existence in this echinoderm species of vertebrate-like mechanisms that can be affected by exposure to androgenic and anti-androgenic chemicals.