CCR1-specific non-peptide antagonist: efficacy in a rabbit allograft rejection model

The classic signs of acute cellular rejection during organ transplantation include the infiltration of mononuclear cells into the interstitium. This recruitment of leukocytes into the transplanted tissue is promoted by chemokines like RANTES. Since RANTES is a potent agonist for the CC chemokine receptor CCR1, we examined whether the CCR1 antagonist BX 471 was efficacious in a rabbit kidney transplant rejection model. BX 471 was able to compete with high affinity with the CCR1 ligands MIP-1alpha and RANTES for binding to HEK 293 cells expressing rabbit CCR1. BX 471 was a competitive antagonist of rabbit CCR1 in Ca(2+) flux studies. Two separate studies in which animals were subcutaneously implanted with slow release pellets of BX 471 demonstrated that animals implanted with BX 471 had increased survival compared with untreated controls or animals implanted with placebo. The mean survival time for the placebo group was 12.33+/-1.7 days. The animals in the BX 471 treated group had mean survival times of 16.9+/-2.1 and 16.0+/-1.7 days, respectively, for the two studies. Analysis of the combined data by Student t-test gave a P value of 0.03 that is significant at the 0.05 level. In addition, there was a marked reduction in the urea and creatinine levels in the BX 471 treated animals compared with the control and placebo groups in both studies. Finally, pathologic analysis of the kidneys in the rabbit renal transplantation model from animals in the different groups showed that BX 471 was similar to cyclosporin in its ability to prevent extensive infarction of transplanted kidneys. Based on the data from these studies, BX 471 shows clear efficacy at the single dose tested compared with animals treated with placebo.

A non-peptide functional antagonist of the CCR1 chemokine receptor is effective in rat heart transplant rejection

Chemokines like RANTES appear to play a role in organ transplant rejection. Because RANTES is a potent agonist for the chemokine receptor CCR1, we examined whether the CCR1 receptor antagonist BX471 is efficacious in a rat heterotopic heart transplant rejection model. Treatment of animals with BX471 and a subtherapeutic dose of cyclosporin (2.5 mg/kg), which is by itself ineffective in prolonging transplant rejection, is much more efficacious in prolonging transplantation rejection than animals treated with either cyclosporin or BX471 alone. We have examined the mechanism of action of the CCR1 antagonist in in vitro flow assays over microvascular endothelium and have discovered that the antagonist blocks the firm adhesion of monocytes triggered by RANTES on inflamed endothelium. Together, these data demonstrate a significant role for CCR1 in allograft rejection.

Identification and characterization of a potent, selective, and orally active antagonist of the CC chemokine receptor-1

The CC chemokine receptor-1 (CCR1) is a prime therapeutic target for treating autoimmune diseases. Through high capacity screening followed by chemical optimization, we identified a novel non-peptide CCR1 antagonist, R-N-[5-chloro-2-[2-[4-[(4-fluorophenyl)methyl]-2-methyl-1-piperazinyl ]-2-oxoethoxy]phenyl]urea hydrochloric acid salt (BX 471). Competition binding studies revealed that BX 471 was able to displace the CCR1 ligands macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha), RANTES, and monocyte chemotactic protein-3 (MCP-3) with high affinity (K(i) ranged from 1 nm to 5.5 nm). BX 471 was a potent functional antagonist based on its ability to inhibit a number of CCR1-mediated effects including Ca(2+) mobilization, increase in extracellular acidification rate, CD11b expression, and leukocyte migration. BX 471 demonstrated a greater than 10,000-fold selectivity for CCR1 compared with 28 G-protein-coupled receptors. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that BX 471 was orally active with a bioavailability of 60% in dogs. Furthermore, BX 471 effectively reduces disease in a rat experimental allergic encephalomyelitis model of multiple sclerosis. This study is the first to demonstrate that a non-peptide chemokine receptor antagonist is efficacious in an animal model of an autoimmune disease. In summary, we have identified a potent, selective, and orally available CCR1 antagonist that may be useful in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Design, synthesis, and in vitro biological activity of benzimidazole based factor Xa inhibitors

Inhibitors based on the benzimidazole scaffold showed subnanomolar potency against Factor Xa with 500-1000-fold selectivity against thrombin and 50-100-fold selectivity against trypsin. The 2-substituent on the benzimidazole ring had a strong impact on the FXa inhibitory activity. Crystallography studies suggest that the 2-substituent may have a conformational effect favoring the extended binding conformation.

Allosteric inhibitors of inducible nitric oxide synthase dimerization discovered via combinatorial chemistry

Potent and selective inhibitors of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (EC ) were identified in an encoded combinatorial chemical library that blocked human iNOS dimerization, and thereby NO production. In a cell-based iNOS assay (A-172 astrocytoma cells) the inhibitors had low-nanomolar IC(50) values and thus were >1,000-fold more potent than the substrate-based direct iNOS inhibitors 1400W and N-methyl-l-arginine. Biochemical studies confirmed that inhibitors caused accumulation of iNOS monomers in mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. High affinity (K(d) approximately 3 nM) of inhibitors for isolated iNOS monomers was confirmed by using a radioligand binding assay. Inhibitors were >1,000-fold selective for iNOS versus endothelial NOS dimerization in a cell-based assay. The crystal structure of inhibitor bound to the monomeric iNOS oxygenase domain revealed inhibitor-heme coordination and substantial perturbation of the substrate binding site and the dimerization interface, indicating that this small molecule acts by allosterically disrupting protein-protein interactions at the dimer interface. These results provide a mechanism-based approach to highly selective iNOS inhibition. Inhibitors were active in vivo, with ED(50) values of <2 mg/kg in a rat model of endotoxin-induced systemic iNOS induction. Thus, this class of dimerization inhibitors has broad therapeutic potential in iNOS-mediated pathologies.

Species selectivity of a small molecule antagonist for the CCR1 chemokine receptor

The species specificity of a small molecule antagonist for the human CCR1 chemokine receptor, 2-2-diphenyl-5-(4-chlorophenyl)piperidin-1-yl)valeronitrile (CCR1 antagonist 1), has been examined using cloned CCR1 receptors from various species. The compound was able to bind to rabbit, marmoset, and human CCR1, and was able to block the functional activation of these receptors. However, it failed to significantly displace radiolabeled macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha) binding to mouse CCR1 at concentrations up to 10 microM. These data suggested that the antagonist binding site is well-conserved in rabbit, marmoset and human CCR1, but not in mouse CCR1. The functional selectivity and mechanism of action for CCR1 antagonist 1 were further characterized. CCR1 antagonist 1 blocked the increase in intracellular Ca(2+) stimulated by CCR1 agonists, but had no effect on N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (FMLP), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and stromal-derived factor 1alpha (SDF1alpha)-induced Ca(2+) mobilization, demonstrating functional selectivity for CCR1. Since CCR1 antagonist 1 is a functional antagonist of marmoset and rabbit CCR1 receptors, it should be possible to test its efficacy in animal models of disease.

Synthesis, characterization, and structure-activity relationships of amidine-substituted (bis)benzylidene-cycloketone olefin isomers as potent and selective factor Xa inhibitors

Factor Xa (FXa) is a trypsin-like serine protease that plays a key role in blood coagulation linking the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways to the final common pathway of the coagulation cascade. During our initial studies, we observed facile photochemical conversion of the known FXa/tPA inhibitor, BABCH ¿(E,E)-2, 7-bis(4-amidinobenzylidene)cycloheptan-1-one, 1a, to the corresponding (Z,Z) olefin isomer, 1c (FXa K(i) = 0.66 nM), which was over 25,000 times more potent than the corresponding (E,E) isomer (1a, FXa K(i) = 17 000 nM). In order to determine the scope of this observation, we expanded on our initial investigation through the preparation of the olefin isomers in a homologous series of cycloalkanone rings, 4-substituted cyclohexanone analogues, and modified amidine derivatives. In most cases the order of potency of the olefin isomers was (Z,Z) > (E,Z) > (E,E) with the cycloheptanone analogue (1c) showing the most potent factor Xa inhibitory activity. In addition, we found that selectivity versus thrombin (FIIa) can be dramatically improved by the addition of a carboxylic acid group to the cycloalkanone ring as seen with 8c (FXa K(i) = 6.9 nM, FIIa K(i) > 50,000 nM). Compounds with one or both of the amidine groups substituted with N-alkyl substituents or replaced with amide groups led to a significant loss of activity. In this report we have demonstrated the importance of the two amidine groups, the cycloheptanone ring, and the (Z,Z) olefin configuration for maximum inhibition of FXa within the BABCH template. The results from this study provided the foundation for the discovery of potent, selective, and orally active FXa inhibitors.

Discovery of novel non-peptide CCR1 receptor antagonists

Ligands for the CCR1 receptor (MIP-1alpha and RANTES) have been implicated in a number of chronic inflammatory diseases, most notably multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Because these ligands share a common receptor, CCR1, we sought to discover antagonists for this receptor as an approach to treating these disorders. A novel series of 4-hydroxypiperidines has been discovered by high throughput screening (HTS) which potently inhibits the binding of MIP-1alpha and RANTES to the recombinant human CCR1 chemokine receptor. The structure-activity relationships of various segments of this template are described as the initial HTS lead 1 was optimized synthetically to the highly potent receptor antagonist 6s. This compound has been shown to have at least 200-fold selectivity for inhibition of CCR1 over other human 7-TM receptors, including other chemokine receptors. In addition, data obtained from in vitro functional assays demonstrate the functional antagonism of compound 6s and structurally related analogues against the CCR1 receptor in a concentration dependent manner. The discovery and optimization of potent and selective CCR1 receptor antagonists represented by compound 6s potentially represent a novel approach to the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Crystallographic analysis of potent and selective factor Xa inhibitors complexed to bovine trypsin

Factor Xa is a serine protease which activates thrombin (factor IIa) and plays a key regulatory role in the blood-coagulation cascade. Factor Xa is, therefore, an important target for the design of anti-thrombotics. Both factor Xa and thrombin share sequence and structural homology with trypsin. As part of a factor Xa inhibitor-design program, a number of factor Xa inhibitors were crystallographically studied complexed to bovine trypsin. The structures of one diaryl benzimidazole, one diaryl carbazole and three diaryloxypyridines are described. All five compounds bind to trypsin in an extended conformation, with an amidinoaryl group in the S1 pocket and a second basic/hydrophobic moiety bound in the S4 pocket. These binding modes all bear a resemblance to the reported binding mode of DX-9065a in bovine trypsin and human factor Xa.

Design, synthesis, and activity of 2,6-diphenoxypyridine-derived factor Xa inhibitors

A novel series of 2,6-diphenoxypyridines has been designed to inhibit factor Xa, a serine protease strategically located in the coagulation cascade. The evolution from the photochemically unstable bisamidine (Z,Z)-BABCH to potent bisamidine compounds with a pyridine heterocycle as the core scaffold has been achieved. The most potent compound in the series, 6h, has a Ki for human factor Xa of 12 nM. The selectivity of 6h against bovine trypsin and human thrombin was greater than 90- and 1000-fold, respectively. Two proposed modes of binding of 6h to factor Xa are made based on the crystal structures of 6h by itself and of 6h bound to bovine trypsin.

Design, synthesis, and biological activity of novel purine and bicyclic pyrimidine factor Xa inhibitors

The synthesis of amidinoaryloxy 9-benzyl-8-methyl-9H-purine, 7,8-dihydropteridine-6(5H)-one and 5,7-dihydropyrimido[4,5-b][1,4]oxazine-6-one inhibitors of Factor Xa is described. These compounds show nanomolar potency against FXa and maintain high selectivity over thrombin and trypsin.

Solid-phase synthesis of N-substituted amidinophenoxy pyridines as factor XA inhibitors

An arylamidine linker has been employed for the solid-phase synthesis of N-substituted amidinoaryloxypyridine analogs 2 via nucleophilic substitution on a fluoropyridyl template. Two novel N-substituted amidinoaryloxypyridine derivatives 2a and 2b were discovered via this approach.

Identification and characterization of small molecule functional antagonists of the CCR1 chemokine receptor

The CC chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha) and RANTES (regulated on activation normal T cell expressed) have been implicated in rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Since their effects are mediated through the CCR1 chemokine receptor, we set up a small molecule CCR1 antagonist program to search for inhibitors. Through high capacity screening we discovered a number of 4-hydroxypiperidine compounds with CCR1 antagonist activity and report their synthesis and in vitro pharmacology here. Scatchard analysis of the competition binding data revealed that the compounds had Ki values ranging from 40 to 4000 nM. The pharmacological profile of the most potent member of this series, compound 1 (2-2-diphenyl-5-(4-chlorophenyl)piperidin-lyl)valeronitri te), was further evaluated. Compound 1 showed concentration-dependent inhibition of MIP-1alpha-induced extracellular acidification and Ca2+ mobilization demonstrating functional antagonism. When given alone, the compound did not elicit any responses, indicating the absence of intrinsic agonist activity. Compound 1 inhibited MIP-1alpha- and RANTES-induced migration in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in a dose-responsive manner. Selectivity testing against a panel of seven transmembrane domain receptors indicated that compound 1 is inactive on a number of receptors at concentrations up to 10 microM. This is the first description of CCR1 receptor antagonists that may be useful in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases involving MIP-1alpha, RANTES, and CCR1.

Polymer supported bases in solution-phase synthesis. 2. A convenient method for N-alkylation reactions of weakly acidic heterocycles

A convenient solution-phase method for N-alkylation reactions of weakly acidic heterocycles employing polymer supported super base PBEMP is described. By using this method, multiple-step and chemoselective N-alkylation sequences can be carried out in a one-pot process.

Burst Conditions of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions Recorded on Microbarographs

Explosive volcanic eruptions generate pressure disturbances in the atmosphere that propagate away either as acoustic or as shock waves, depending on the explosivity of the eruption. Both types of waves are recorded on microbarographs as 1- to 0.1-hertz N-shaped signals followed by a longer period coda. These waveforms can be used to estimate burst pressures and gas concentrations in explosive volcanic eruptions and provide estimates of eruption magnitudes.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationships of oxamic acid and acetic acid derivatives related to L-thyronine

Aryloxamic acids 7 and 23, (arylamino)acetic acids 29, arylpropionic acids 33, arylthioacetic acids 37, and (aryloxy)acetic acid 41 related to L-triiodothyronine (L-T3) were prepared and tested in vitro for binding to the rat liver nuclear L-T3 receptor and the rat membrane L-T3 receptor. The structure-activity relationships for these compounds are described, with 7f, 23a, 29c, 33a, 37b, and 41 showing excellent potency (IC50's of 0.19, 0.16, 1.1, 0.11, 3.5, and 0.10 nM, respectively) to the nuclear receptor and significantly lower binding affinity to the membrane receptor (IC50's > 5 microM). Some of these compounds, especially in the oxamic acid series 7 and 23, showed an unprecedented potency for methyl-substituted derivatives such as 7f and 23a. Compounds 7f and 23a showed good lipid lowering effects in rats with ED50's of 20 and 5 micrograms/kg po, respectively, and a lack of cardiac side effects in rats at doses as high as 10 and 25 mg/kg po, respectively.

Human monocytes respond to leukotriene B4 with a transient increase in cytosolic calcium

To define the intracellular activation events stimulated by leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in human monocytes, we investigated the transient increase in cytosolic free calcium levels ([Ca2+]i) elicited by this lipid mediator. Using elutriated human monocytes, LTB4 caused a dose-dependent increase in [Ca2+]i with an ED50 of 1.0 nM. The LTB4-induced [Ca2+]i response exhibited ligand selectivity, with both the diastereomer 5S-12S-diHETE and the 20-COOH LTB4 inactive at 500 nM, while 20-OH LTB4 was a partial agonist with an approximate ED50 of 10 nM. This response demonstrated stimulus-specific deactivation and was inhibited by the specific LTB4 receptor antagonist LY-223982. These results suggest that LTB4 stimulated an increase in [Ca2+]i via interaction with a defined LTB4 receptor. The inhibitory effects of pertussis toxin and PMA on the LTB4-induced [Ca2+]i suggest that a receptor-linked guanine nucleotide-binding protein and protein kinase C are involved in the regulation of the LTB4-elicited increase in [Ca2+]i. The LTB4-induced cell activation event may play a key role in the functional responses elicited by LTB4 in human monocytes.

Comparison of antagonist and agonist binding to the leukotriene B4 receptor intact human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN)

In the present studies, the pharmacology of the leukotriene B4 (LTB4) receptor on intact human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) was characterized using radioligand binding techniques with [3H]LTB4 and a novel LTB4 receptor antagonist radioligand [3H]CGS 23131 (LY223982). Saturation studies revealed that [3H]CGS 23131 labeled a single class of recognition sites with high affinity (Kd = 13 nM) and limited capacity (apparent Bmax = 2.8 pmol/10(7) cells). In contrast, [3H]LTB4 labeled both a set of high (Kd = 0.3 nM) and lower affinity (Kd = 5 nM) recognition sites. However, the apparent density of [3H]LTB4 binding to intact human PMN (combined Bmax = 380 fmol/10(7) cells) was approximately 14% of that observed with [3H]CGS 23131. In ligand competition studies, various LTB4 agonists and antagonists were found to inhibit the binding of [3H]CGS 23131, revealing a pharmacological profile consistent with the specific labeling of the LTB4 receptor. A positive rank order correlation (r = 0.79) was observed between the ligand competition profiles obtained with [3H]CGS 23131 and [3H]LTB4. Both LTB4 and its omega oxidation product, 20-OH-LTB4, were found to inhibit the binding of 1.0 nM [3H]CGS 23131 in a biphasic fashion consistent with the existence of multiple affinity components of the LTB4 receptor. In competing for 0.5 nM [3H]LTB4 binding, these compounds were found to produce monophasic inhibition curves, which was indicative of a selective interaction at the high-affinity LTB4 receptor.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Platelet activating factor stimulates intracellular calcium transients in human neutrophils: involvement of endogenous 5-lipoxygenase products

Stimulation of human neutrophils with platelet activating factor (PAF) resulted in a transient elevation of free cytosolic calcium. Neutrophils exhibited a two-component calcium response observed as a double peak when stimulated with greater than 5 nM PAF. In contrast, leukotriene B4 (LTB4), C5a, or formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine stimulated only a single-peak calcium response. The double-peak calcium response was not elicited in human monocytes or differentiated U937 cells, which demonstrated a single peak. Pretreatment of neutrophils with a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor or a specific LTB4-receptor antagonist selectively blocked the second calcium peak. These results suggest that PAF-mediated activation of human neutrophils results in the activation of the 5-lipoxygenase and the subsequent generation of LTB4. This LTB4 in turn elicits a secondary rise in calcium, which contributes to the overall response of neutrophils of PAF. These results demonstrate how LTB4 participates in the cellular responses elicited by PAF in human neutrophils.

Thick filter neutrophil chemotaxis performed in the absence of albumin

Migration through a filter is a technique widely used for the study of cell chemotaxis. Since the original description of the technique by Boyden in 1962 (J. Exp. Med. 115, 453) using neutrophils and thick filters prepared from cellulose nitrate, albumin has been required in the incubation medium to support chemotaxis. However, the binding to albumin of compounds affecting chemotaxis can reduce their free concentration. We developed two procedures for studying neutrophil chemotaxis under reduced or albumin-free conditions. In one, cellulose nitrate filters were pretreated with albumin by a novel procedure and chemotaxis was carried out in albumin-free medium. As tested with the chemoattractant LTB4 and human neutrophils, the procedure resulted in full chemotaxis, measured by the number of cells crossing the filter, with an EC50 of 0.43 nM for LTB4. The LTB4-receptor antagonist LY 223982 inhibited the chemotactic action of LTB4 with a Ki of 62 nM in the albumin-pretreated filter system, thus showing 58 times greater potency than in medium containing 0.5% albumin. The second procedure makes use, for the first time, of a relatively new filter (Hydrophilic Durapore). This filter has the same dimensions and pore rating of the cellulose nitrate filter but did not require pretreatment with albumin to support chemotaxis in the albumin-free medium. LTB4 stimulated neutrophil chemotaxis across this filter with an EC50 of 0.29 nM. LY 223982 had a Ki of 11 nM, thus exhibiting a potency even greater than in the albumin-pretreated cellulose nitrate filter system. fMLP and C5a also stimulated chemotaxis in the absence of albumin. These results suggest that albumin is not obligatory for neutrophil chemotaxis through thick filters. The role of albumin in the chemotaxis assay using cellulose nitrate filters may be to counteract the adherence of cells or chemotactic agents to the filters.

Influence of standard and novel LTB4 analogs on human neutrophil chemotaxis measured by the multiwell cap assay

Standard and novel LTB4 analogs were tested for neutrophil chemoattractant activity using the multiwell cap assay (Evans et al. (1986) Biosc. Rep. 6, 1041). The assay uses disposable equipment and measures chemotaxis by the number of cells able to migrate across the full thickness of cellulose nitrate filters. Under standard conditions (90 min incubation at 37 degrees C in buffer containing 2% bovine albumin), LTB4 and 6-cis-LTB1 had EC50 values of 3.5 and 15,000 nM, respectively. 20-hydroxy-LTB4 was equipotent with LTB4 and exhibited a similar biphasic chemotactic response, however, only one third of the number of cells migrated through the filter. 20-carboxy-LTB4 was inactive up to 1,000 nM. 5-desoxy-((6,7)-cis-cyclopropyl)-LTB2, (6,7)-benzo-LTB2 and 5-desoxy-(8,10)-LTB2 had EC50 values of 11,300, 50,000 and 84,000 nM, respectively. Checkerboard analysis indicated a chemokinetic component of 42% for LTB4 at a concentration causing peak chemotaxis. Reduction of albumin in the buffer to 0.5% increased the apparent potencies of LTB4 and 6-cis-LTB1 five-fold. Since LTB4 is a mediator of inflammation, various anti-inflammatory agents were tested at peak concentrations observed in vivo for in vitro inhibition of LTB4-stimulated chemotaxis in the presence of 0.5% albumin. Under the conditions of the assay, chloroquine diphosphate, dexamethasone, indomethacin, penicillamine, piroxicam and diclofenac sodium were inactive; gold sodium thiomalate was inhibitory (IC50 = 20 microM).