Conditional knock-out reveals a requirement for O-linked N-Acetylglucosaminase (O-GlcNAcase) in metabolic homeostasis

O-GlcNAc cycling is maintained by the reciprocal activities of the O-GlcNAc transferase and the O-GlcNAcase (OGA) enzymes. O-GlcNAc transferase is responsible for O-GlcNAc addition to serine and threonine (Ser/Thr) residues and OGA for its removal. Although the Oga gene (MGEA5) is a documented human diabetes susceptibility locus, its role in maintaining insulin-glucose homeostasis is unclear. Here, we report a conditional disruption of the Oga gene in the mouse. The resulting homozygous Oga null (KO) animals lack OGA enzymatic activity and exhibit elevated levels of the O-GlcNAc modification. The Oga KO animals showed nearly complete perinatal lethality associated with low circulating glucose and low liver glycogen stores. Defective insulin-responsive GSK3β phosphorylation was observed in both heterozygous (HET) and KO Oga animals. Although Oga HET animals were viable, they exhibited alterations in both transcription and metabolism. Transcriptome analysis using mouse embryonic fibroblasts revealed deregulation in the transcripts of both HET and KO animals specifically in genes associated with metabolism and growth. Additionally, metabolic profiling showed increased fat accumulation in HET and KO animals compared with WT, which was increased by a high fat diet. Reduced insulin sensitivity, glucose tolerance, and hyperleptinemia were also observed in HET and KO female mice. Notably, the respiratory exchange ratio of the HET animals was higher than that observed in WT animals, indicating the preferential utilization of glucose as an energy source. These results suggest that the loss of mouse OGA leads to defects in metabolic homeostasis culminating in obesity and insulin resistance.

Differential trafficking of the Niemann-Pick C1 and 2 proteins highlights distinct roles in late endocytic lipid trafficking

The cellular location of Niemann-Pick C2 protein (NPC2) in cultured human fibroblasts and Chinese hamster ovary cells was examined immunocytochemically and in living cells by expression of a functional red fluorescent protein chimeric analogue.

RESULTS

NPC2 is present in the lysosomes of both cholesterol-depleted and -replenished cells, unlike Niemann-Pick C1 protein (NPC1) which is recruited to late endosomes only upon uptake of low-density lipoprotein. With mobilization of cholesterol from lysosomes, immunocytochemical detection of NPC2 in lysosomes is greatly diminished, whereas NPC1 remains in the late endosomal compartment. We found a partial overlap in the trafficking and organellar sites of accumulation of NPC2 and NPC1. In living cells, NPC2 traffics with NPC1 in late endosomal tubules. However, in contrast to NPC1, which remains either in late endosomal vesicles and tubules or at the peripheries of cholesterol-laden lysosomes, NPC2 moves into the central core of lysosomes. Glycolipid analysis reveals that, in contrast to null mutant NPC1 cells, which accumulate GM2 ganglioside only at the plasma membrane, with no endocytic storage, absence of NPC2 protein in null mutant NPC2 cells does not block internalization of GM2 into endocytic vesicles. This difference in the cellular distribution of GM2 in NPC1 and NPC2 null mutants is the first report of a variation in the phenotypic expression of these genotypically distinct lesions.

CONCLUSION

We speculate that while NPC1 may play a major role in the sorting of glycolipids as well as cholesterol within the late endosomes, NPC2 primarily plays a role in the egress of cholesterol and, potentially, glycolipids from lysosomes. These proteins appear not to be integrated into a tightly bound biological complex, but rather represent separate functional entities that complement each other.

Substantial narrowing of the Niemann-Pick C candidate interval by yeast artificial chromosome complementation

Niemann-Pick disease type C (NP-C) is an autosomal recessive lipidosis linked to chromosome 18q11-12, characterized by lysosomal accumulation of unesterified cholesterol and delayed induction of cholesterol-mediated homeostatic responses. This cellular phenotype is identifiable cytologically by filipin staining and biochemically by measurement of low-density lipoprotein-derived cholesterol esterification. The mutant Chinese hamster ovary cell line (CT60), which displays the NP-C cellular phenotype, was used as the recipient for a complementation assay after somatic cell fusions with normal and NP-C murine cells suggested that this Chinese hamster ovary cell line carries an alteration(s) in the hamster homolog(s) of NP-C. To narrow rapidly the candidate interval for NP-C, three overlapping yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) spanning the 1 centimorgan human NP-C interval were introduced stably into CT60 cells and analyzed for correction of the cellular phenotype. Only YAC 911D5 complemented the NP-C phenotype, as evidenced by cytological and biochemical analyses, whereas no complementation was obtained from the other two YACs within the interval or from a YAC derived from chromosome 7. Fluorescent in situ hybridization indicated that YAC 911D5 was integrated at a single site per CT60 genome. These data substantially narrow the NP-C critical interval and should greatly simplify the identification of the gene responsible in mouse and man. This is the first demonstration of YAC complementation as a valuable adjunct strategy for positional cloning of a human gene.

Cholesterol deprivation affects the fluorescence properties of a ceramide analog at the Golgi apparatus of living cells

Previous studies have established that a fluorescent analog of ceramide, N-[7-(4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole)] -6-aminohexanoyl-D-erythro-sphingosine (C6-NBD-Cer), is a vital stain for the Golgi apparatus and a useful tool for studying the sorting and transport of sphingolipids along the secretory pathway in animal cells. Here, we examine the effects of various culture conditions on labeling of the Golgi apparatus of human skin fibroblasts by C6-NBD-Cer and demonstrate that cholesterol deprivation affects the fluorescence properties of the probe at this organelle. Labeling of the Golgi apparatus by C6-NBD-Cer was dramatically reduced in cells grown in medium containing lipoprotein-deficient serum compared to cells grown in medium containing normal serum. Quantitative fluorescence microscopy showed that this apparent reduction in labeling resulted from accelerated photo-bleaching of the fluorescent analog. C6-NBD-Cer labeling of the Golgi apparatus was restored in cholesterol-deprived cells by stimulating endogenous cholesterol biosynthesis with mevalonic acid or by adding exogenous nonlipoprotein cholesterol or low density lipoprotein to the culture medium. In addition, when cells grown in medium containing normal serum were perforated and treated with cholesterol oxidase, an apparent reduction in labeling resulted, further implicating an intracellular pool of cholesterol in the potentiation of C6-NBD-Cer fluorescence. These results demonstrate that cytological studies using C6-NBD-Cer are affected by cholesterol deprivation and suggest that this fluorescent lipid may be used to monitor cholesterol at the Golgi apparatus of living cells.

Progesterone blocks cholesterol translocation from lysosomes

Fluorescent microscopic examination of fibroblasts cultured with low density lipoprotein (LDL) and progesterone (10 micrograms/ml) for 24 h revealed extensive filipin-cholesterol staining of perinuclear lysosomes. Levels of unesterified cholesterol were 2-fold greater than in fibroblasts cultured with LDL alone. Progesterone strongly blocked cholesteryl ester synthesis. When cellular uptake of LDL was monitored in the presence of 58035, a specific inhibitor of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase, excess unesterified cholesterol was not stored in lysosomes. Discontinuation of LDL uptake in conjunction with progesterone washout markedly reversed the filipin-cholesterol staining of lysosomes. Reversal of the lysosomal cholesterol lipidosis was associated with a rapid burst of cholesteryl ester synthesis and a normalization of the cellular levels of free and esterified cholesterol. In contrast to normal cells, progesterone removal from Niemann-Pick C fibroblasts did not reverse the lysosomal cholesterol accumulation of these mutant cultures. The metabolic precursor of progesterone, pregnenolone, also induced extensive accumulation of cholesterol in lysosomes. Other steroids induced less vacuolar cholesterol accumulation in the following decreasing order: corticosterone and testosterone, promegestone, RU 486. The relative inhibition of cellular cholesterol esterification by the steroids paralleled their respective abilities to sequester cholesterol in lysosomes rather than their inhibition of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activity in cell-free extracts. The progesterone-related inhibition and restoration of lysosomal cholesterol trafficking is a useful experimental means of studying intracellular cholesterol transport. A particularly important feature of its utility is the facile reversibility of the steroid-induced block. The lysosomal cholesterol lipidosis established with a hydrophobic amine, U18666A, was not as readily reversed.

Niemann-Pick type-C disease: deficient intracellular transport of exogenously derived cholesterol

NPC disease is an autosomal recessive neurovisceral storage disorder. A pleiotropic array of secondary enzymatic and storage abnormalities has in the past obscured a cohesive understanding of the underlying metabolic basis of this disorder. Recent findings, reviewed in this report, demonstrate that NPC disease is a cholesterol lipidosis resulting from defective intracellular cholesterol transport. The sequence of cellular events characteristic of NPC is 1) deficient intracellular transport of exogenously derived cholesterol resulting in retarded induction of cellular cholesterol homeostatic regulation; 2) accumulation of cholesterol in lysosomes; and 3) secondary cellular effects. Retarded esterification of exogenous cholesterol and accumulation of unesterified cholesterol in lysosomes is tightly coupled to the primary defect and serves as the basis for biochemical diagnosis of NPC.

Type C Niemann-Pick disease: cellular uncoupling of cholesterol homeostasis is linked to the severity of disruption in the intracellular transport of exogenously derived cholesterol

A uniquely attenuated disruption of cholesterol homeostasis has been characterized in certain Niemann-Pick, type C (NP-C) fibroblasts. Uptake of LDL-cholesterol by cultured fibroblasts derived from two clinically affected brothers with this variant biochemical phenotype led to less intracellular accumulation of unesterified cholesterol than found in other typical cell lines. This limited cholesterol lipidosis in the variant NP-C cells reflected cholesterol processing errors that differed from the cellular lesions in classical NP-C cells in the following ways: (1) a more limited intracellular distribution of the excessive unesterified cholesterol; (2) shorter and more transient delays in the induction of cholesterol-mediated homeostatic responses; and (3) more efficient intracellular transport of exogenously derived cholesterol to the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum. Activation of acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) was greater than 100-fold in both control and NP-C fibroblasts when cell cultures were preconditioned with 25-hydroxycholesterol, but the subsequent esterification of exogenous non-lipoprotein [3H]cholesterol remained deficient in all NP-C cells. In the variant NP-C cells conditioned with the oxysterol, this esterification of exogenous [3H]cholesterol was less affected than in classical NP-C cultures. The NP-C mutation affects a broad spectrum of metabolic responses related to the processing of exogenously derived cholesterol. Among this pleiotropic array of deficient responses, retarded intracellular cholesterol transport appears most closely linked to the primary mutation. This conclusion is supported by two current observations: (1) the degree to which sterol transport is affected in mutant cells in turn reflects the extent to which cholesterol-homeostatic responses are compromised; and (2) sterol transport remains deficient despite concurrent normal activation of other cellular responses, such as cholesterol esterification.

Type C Niemann-Pick disease: use of hydrophobic amines to study defective cholesterol transport

Niemann-Pick Type C (NPC) disease is a cholesterol lipidosis resulting from defective postlysosomal cholesterol transport. In normal cells this segment of cholesterol trafficking is inhibited by treatment with either U18666A or imipramine. Other compounds are also capable of blocking postlysosomal cholesterol transport: stearylamine, RV-538, and sphinganine inhibit low-density lipoprotein-induced esterification of cholesterol and cause unesterified cholesterol to accumulate in perinuclear vesicles. These vesicles can be stained with filipin to give a staining pattern indistinguishable from that seen in NPC fibroblasts. Because all of these compounds are hydrophobic amines, we conclude that most, if not all, hydrophobic amines block the postlysosomal transport of cholesterol. These results also raise the possibility that an endogenous amine, e.g., sphinganine, may inhibit cholesterol transport in NPC.

Type C Niemann-Pick disease: dimethyl sulfoxide moderates abnormal LDL-cholesterol processing in mutant fibroblasts

Biochemical and cytochemical studies have revealed that abnormal processing of low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol can be reversed in mutant Niemann-Pick C (NP-C) fibroblasts when 2% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is added to the culture medium. Both the excessive lysosomal accumulation of LDL cholesterol and the delayed induction of cellular homeostatic responses associated with the uptake of LDL by the mutant cells were substantially reversed by DMSO. DMSO appears to accelerate the intracellular mobilization of LDL-derived cholesterol through effects that may reflect enhanced membrane permeability or cholesterol solubilization.

Clinical spectrum of Niemann-Pick disease type C

Analysis of the neurologic symptomatology in 22 patients with Niemann-Pick disease type C revealed 3 phenotypes: (1) an early-onset, rapidly progressive form associated with severe hepatic dysfunction and psychomotor delay during infancy and later with supranuclear vertical gaze paresis, ataxia, marked spasticity, and dementia; (2) a delayed-onset, slowly progressive form heralded by the appearance, usually in early childhood, of mild intellectual impairment, supranuclear vertical gaze paresis, and ataxia, and later associated with dementia and, variably, seizures and extrapyramidal deficits; (3) a late-onset slowly progressive form distinguished from the 2nd pattern by later age of onset (adolescence or adulthood) and a much slower rate of progression. The existence of the 1st and 2nd phenotypes within the same sibship suggests that they are variant expressions of the same clinicopathologic disorder. Niemann-Pick disease type C should be considered not only in infants and children who present with organomegaly and a progressive neurodegenerative course, but also in adolescents and adults who have insidiously progressive neurologic dysfunction and only slight organomegaly. Associated with the disease is a marked deficiency in the ability of cultured fibroblasts to esterify exogenously supplied cholesterol. Assay of this deficiency is particularly useful for confirming the diagnosis in patients with atypical presentation.

Type-C Niemann-Pick disease: low density lipoprotein uptake is associated with premature cholesterol accumulation in the Golgi complex and excessive cholesterol storage in lysosomes

Incubation of fibroblasts derived from patients with type-C Niemann-Pick disease with low density lipoprotein results in excessive intracellular accumulation of unesterified cholesterol. Cytochemical techniques revealed that this abnormal cholesterol accumulation is associated not only with a massive storage of cholesterol in lysosomes but also with a premature cholesterol enrichment of the Golgi complex. Cholesterol appeared also in the Golgi complex of some normal fibroblasts after 24 hr of low density lipoprotein loading. These findings indicate that components of the Golgi complex play a role in the intracellular translocation of exogenously derived cholesterol and that disruptions of the cholesterol transport pathway at the Golgi may, in part, be responsible for the deficiency in cholesterol utilization in type-C Niemann-Pick fibroblasts.

Niemann-Pick disease group C: clinical variability and diagnosis based on defective cholesterol esterification. A collaborative study on 70 patients

Seventy patients were selected to cover the range of variability in clinical expression of Niemann-Pick disease group C (NP-C). Their individual main clinical features and course of the disease (age at discovery and type of visceromegaly, age at onset and first neurological manifestation, later neurological symptoms) are schematically described. In cultured skin fibroblasts from these patients, sphingomyelinase activities measured in vitro showed decreased values only in approximately half of the cases, and when the metabolic fate of [14C]-sphingomyelin was studied in living cell cultures, still 20% of the cases had a normal hydrolysis rate. Esterification of exogenous cholesterol was investigated in cell lines from these and 5 additional patients and in 21 of their parents. Using a non-lipoprotein [3H]cholesterol source, very low esterification rates were obtained in more than 90% of the cases. All the numerous other pathological conditions studied, including Niemann-Pick disease types A and B, gave normal results. A more sensitive method was elaborated, in which the cells were challenged with pure human low density lipoproteins (LDL) and the early rate of esterification studied. With the latter procedure, a pronounced deficiency could also be demonstrated in the few cases which had shown a milder impairment using a [3H]cholesterol source, and intermediate rates of esterification were obtained in heterozygotes. Discrimination of these difficult cases and of heterozygotes could also be achieved replacing LDL with total unfrozen human serum. Correlations were established between given clinical phenotypes and the severity of the biochemical lesion. Defective intracellular cholesterol esterification is further established as an intrinsic feature of NP-C, and demonstration of this metabolic alteration appears as a major advance in diagnosing the condition.

Type C Niemann-Pick disease. Lysosomal accumulation and defective intracellular mobilization of low density lipoprotein cholesterol

The intracellular accumulation of unesterified cholesterol was examined during 24 h of low density lipoprotein (LDL) uptake in normal and Niemann-Pick C fibroblasts by fluorescence microscopy with filipin staining and immunocytochemistry. Perinuclear fluorescence derived from filipin-sterol complexes was observed in both normal and mutant cells by 2 h. This perinuclear cholesterol staining reached its peak in normal cells at 6 h. Subsequent development of fluorescence during the remaining 18 h of LDL incubation was primarily limited to the plasma membrane region of normal cells. In contrast, mutant cells developed a much more intense perinuclear fluorescence throughout the entire 24 h of LDL uptake with little enhancement of cholesterol fluorescence staining in the plasma membranes. Direct mass measurements confirmed that internalized LDL cholesterol more readily replenishes the plasma membrane cholesterol of normal than of mutant fibroblasts. Perinuclear filipin-cholesterol fluorescence of both normal and mutant cells was colocalized with lysosomes by indirect immunocytochemical staining of lysosomal membrane protein. Abnormal sequestration of LDL cholesterol in mutant cells within a metabolically latent pool is supported by the finding that in vitro esterification of cellular cholesterol could be stimulated in mutant but not in normal cell homogenates by extensive disruption of the intracellular membranous structures of cells previously cultured with LDL. Deficient translocation of exogenously derived cholesterol from lysosomes to other intracellular membrane sites may be responsible for the delayed homeostatic responses associated with LDL uptake by mutant Niemann-Pick Type C fibroblasts.

Group C Niemann-Pick disease: faulty regulation of low-density lipoprotein uptake and cholesterol storage in cultured fibroblasts

Incubation of mutant Niemann-Pick C fibroblasts with low-density lipoprotein (LDL) resulted in excessive internalization of lipoprotein and extensive cellular over-accumulation of unesterified cholesterol. The uptake of LDL by the mutant cells appeared to occur through the classic LDL receptor pathway and internalized lipoprotein was processed in lysosomes. Lipoprotein uptake into mutant cells was associated with delays in the initiation of established cellular cholesterol homeostatic responses. Subcellular fractionation of mutant Niemann-Pick C fibroblasts accumulating LDL-cholesterol showed excess unesterified sterol to be localized in the light lysosome-light membrane region of a Percoll gradient, and revealed that cholesterol storage was associated with a specific alteration in the normal profiles of lysosomal marker enzymes.

Niemann-pick variant disorders: comparison of errors of cellular cholesterol homeostasis in group D and group C fibroblasts

Fluorescence microscopic examination of filipin-stained cultured skin fibroblasts derived from two brothers with group D Niemann-Pick disease revealed abnormal storage of low density lipoprotein (LDL)-derived cholesterol. LDL stimulation of intracellular cholesteryl ester synthesis was severely compromised in the Niemann-Pick D fibroblasts, as it also was in fibroblasts obtained from Niemann-Pick C patients. Cholesteryl ester synthesis was intermediately deficient in cells derived from an obligate group-D heterozygous carrier. Activity of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase was within the normal range in cell-free extracts of both LDL-depleted and LDL-supplemented cultures of Niemann-Pick C and D fibroblasts. Incubation of Niemann-Pick D fibroblasts with LDL did not lead to as high a level of intracellular cholesterol accumulation as the excessive storage observed with Niemann-Pick C fibroblasts. These findings suggest that the Niemann-Pick variant disorders may represent a family of specific and possibly individual mutations that disrupt cellular cholesterol homeostasis.

Type C Niemann-Pick disease. Abnormal metabolism of low density lipoprotein in homozygous and heterozygous fibroblasts

The esterification of cholesterol derived from human low density lipoprotein (LDL) or fetal bovine serum (FBS) was deficient in cultured fibroblasts from subjects with heterozygous and homozygous type C Niemann-Pick (NPC) disease. Failure to significantly esterify LDL-derived cholesterol resulted in abnormal accumulation of predominantly unesterified cholesterol in homozygous NPC fibroblasts. Compared with normal and homozygous fibroblasts, heterozygous NPC fibroblasts synthesized intermediate levels of cholesteryl ester during the initial 6 h of incubation with LDL. The rate of cholesterol esterification in heterozygous cells was normal when measured over a 24-h period of incubation with LDL. In addition to demonstrating a defect in cholesterol esterification, homozygous NPC fibroblasts accumulated more total cholesterol when incubated with LDL or FBS than normal fibroblasts accumulated. When heterozygous NPC fibroblasts were incubated with LDL or FBS, cellular accumulation of cholesterol reached levels that were high-normal or intermediary between levels observed in normal and homozygous NPC fibroblasts. The partial expression of these metabolic errors in the heterozygous genotype relevantly links these errors to the primary mutation of this disorder.

Type C Niemann-Pick disease. A parallel loss of regulatory responses in both the uptake and esterification of low density lipoprotein-derived cholesterol in cultured fibroblasts

Low density lipoprotein (LDL) internalization by mutant type C Niemann-Pick (NPC) fibroblasts results in uptake of excess total cholesterol. Uptake of excess lipoprotein cholesterol appears to be mediated by the specific LDL receptor pathway. Associated with excessive LDL-cholesterol uptake is a lesion in early intracellular cholesteryl ester synthesis. In vitro acylCoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activity is normal in cell-free extracts of mutant cells. The ability of exogenous sterols to enhance intracellular esterification of [3H]mevalonate-derived [3H]cholesterol was severely limited in mutant cell cultures suggesting that in vivo activation and/or expression of activated acylCoA:cholesterol acyltransferase may be compromised by the primary mutation of type C Niemann-Pick disease. After 2 days of LDL uptake, rates of intracellular cholesteryl ester synthesis in mutant cells paralleled the rates of esterification in normal cells suggesting that specific early in vivo expression of the acyltransferase may be affected in this disorder.

The cholesterol storage disorder of the mutant BALB/c mouse. A primary genetic lesion closely linked to defective esterification of exogenously derived cholesterol and its relationship to human type C Niemann-Pick disease

An inborn murine cholesterol storage disorder exists which is characterized by a lesion in intracellular cholesterol esterification not accounted for by any discernible abnormality in acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase (Pentchev, P.G., Boothe, A.D., Kruth, H.S., Weintroub, H., Stivers, J., and Brady, R.O. (1984) J. Biol. Chem. 259, 5784-5791). Current studies have shown that the level of esterification of nonlipoprotein-derived [3H]cholesterol in cultured fibroblasts from heterozygous mutant mice was intermediary between the level found in normal fibroblasts and the deficient level found in fibroblasts from homozygous mutant mice. Homozygous-affected fibroblasts took up and converted [3H]desmosterol to [3H]cholesterol at a normal rate indicating that the murine mutation does not compromise the transport of exogenous sterol to microsomes. In contrast to the defect in esterification of exogenously derived cholesterol, synthesis of cholesteryl ester from [3H]mevalonic acid and [3H]squalene was normal in affected fibroblasts as was the stimulation of cholesteryl ester synthesis from endogenous cholesterol induced by 25-hydroxycholesterol. In surveying a number of mutant cell lines from human metabolic disorders with phenotypic manifestations similar in part to the mutant cholesterol storage mouse, Niemann-Pick C fibroblasts displayed a similar defect in esterification of exogenously derived cholesterol.

A defect in cholesterol esterification in Niemann-Pick disease (type C) patients

The demonstration of a defect of cholesterol esterification in a mutant strain of BALB/c mice with an attendant reduction of sphingomyelinase activity [Pentchev, P. G., Boothe, A. D., Kruth, H.S., Weintroub, H., Stivers, J. & Brady, R. O. (1984) J. Biol. Chem. 259, 5784-5791] prompted us to examine the capacity of cultured human Niemann-Pick fibroblasts to esterify exogenously derived cholesterol. Cholesterol was supplied to cell cultures in the form of native or chemically modified, positively charged low density lipoprotein or as non-lipoprotein cholesterol. Cholesterol esterification was not impaired in cell cultures derived from patients with type A or B Niemann-Pick disease. However, esterification of exogenously administered cholesterol was deficient in 20 type C Niemann-Pick cell lines that were available for testing. Fluorescence histochemical staining of unesterified cholesterol in type C cells suggested that these cells were able to internalize and lysosomally process lipoprotein cholesterol. Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activity did not appear deficient in type C cell extracts. The error in cholesterol esterification may provide an opportunity for probing the molecular lesion in this disorder and may afford a useful and reliable means for establishing diagnosis.