Variability in adolescent reception of parental support: Testing the domain-matching hypothesis

The present study investigated matches and mismatches between adolescent and parent socialization domains (i.e., protection, guidance) as related to adolescent reception of parental support during a laboratory-based social evaluation challenge. Participants were 80 early adolescents (Mage = 12.36 years, SD = 1.33, 55% males, 55% Black, 42.5% White, and 2.5% other races or ethnicities) and one parent or guardian per adolescent. Observational measures of parent socialization domains assessed sensitivity to adolescents' thoughts and feelings (protection domain) and prosocial behavioral advice (guidance domain). Measures of parallel adolescent socialization domains included self-reported discomfort during a social evaluation challenge (protection domain) and desire to continue the social evaluation challenge (guidance domain). Adolescent reception of parental support was assessed using an observational measure of adolescent attentiveness and responsiveness to the parent during a parent-adolescent discussion about how to approach the social evaluation challenge. Analyses of interactions between measures of parent and adolescent socialization domains revealed: (a) higher levels of adolescent-reported discomfort during the social evaluation challenge interfered with their reception of parental prosocial behavioral advice but did not enhance their reception of parental sensitivity, and (b) higher levels of adolescent-reported desire to continue the social evaluation challenge interfered with their reception of parental sensitivity but did not enhance their reception of parental prosocial behavioral advice. This study advances socialization research by identifying conditions under which adolescents are more and less receptive to supportive communication from parents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Intervention format and therapist-child agreement associated with therapeutic alliance and outcomes

OBJECTIVE

The study examined the effects of therapeutic alliance (TA; relational bond, task collaboration) on externalizing behavior outcomes, how TA can operate differently when children are seen in individual versus group sessions, and how therapist-child disagreement in perceptions of TA affects outcomes.

METHOD

Three hundred sixty children (Ages 9.2-11.8; 65% male; 78.1% Black) identified as having high rates of aggressive behavior by the fourth-grade teachers, and their 20 elementary schools were randomized to group versus individual delivery of the cognitive behavioral intervention, Coping Power. TA ratings were collected from children and therapists at mid and end of intervention using the Therapeutic Alliance Scale for Children. Teacher ratings of children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems were collected prior to intervention and at 1-year follow-up after intervention using the Behavior Assessment System for Children.

RESULTS

Children receiving the intervention individually reported significantly higher trait-like levels of task collaboration than did children seen in groups. Independent of intervention format, higher trait-like levels of therapist-rated bond and task collaboration predicted reduced levels of externalizing problems, and higher trait-like levels of child- and therapist-rated task-collaboration and therapist-rated bond predicted reduced levels of internalizing problems. Differences between therapist and child reports of bond predicted weaker reductions in internalizing behavior for children seen in groups.

CONCLUSIONS

It is essential to train therapists to develop and assess for TA by midintervention with children with aggressive behavior problems, especially if they are seen in small groups, and to determine if therapists may misperceive the strength of TA. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Analytical challenges of testing hypotheses of agreement and discrepancy: Comment on Campione-Barr, Lindell, and Giron (2020)

Researchers are often inclined to test agreement or discrepancy hypotheses using difference scores. This commentary explains 2 mathematical-statistical principles underlying associations with difference scores and 2 conceptual-interpretation problems that make difference scores inappropriate for testing such hypotheses. The commentary provides examples of valid and invalid interpretations of difference score associations in reference to equivalent models. The commentary recommends testing agreement hypotheses using interaction terms and explains how to do so. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations of bullying, victimization, and daytime sleepiness with academic problems in adolescents attending an alternative high school

Adolescents attending alternative high schools often present with high rates of academic and behavior problems. They are also at increased risk of poor health behaviors and engaging in physical violence compared with students in traditional high school settings. To address the needs of students in these educational settings, examining factors that influence academic problems in this population is essential. Research has established that both bullying/victimization and sleep problems increase adolescents' risk for academic problems. Little is known about how these 2 factors together may exacerbate risk for academic problems among students attending an alternative high school. The current study investigated the interaction between teacher-reported bullying, victimization and daytime sleepiness on academic concerns (attention and learning problems) among a sample of 172 students (56% female; age M = 18.07 years, SD = 1.42) attending an alternative high school in a large, Southeastern U.S. city. Findings from path models indicated that daytime sleepiness, bullying, and victimization were uniquely associated with attention and learning problems. Further, significant interactions indicated that the association between victimization/bullying and attention/learning problems weakened as levels of daytime sleepiness increased. Results suggest the importance of assessing and addressing multiple contextual risk factors in adolescents attending alternative high schools to provide comprehensive intervention for students in these settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Negative reactions to monitoring: Do they undermine the ability of monitoring to protect adolescents?

This study focused on adolescents' negative reactions to parental monitoring to determine whether parents should avoid excessive monitoring because adolescents find monitoring behaviors to be over-controlling and privacy invasive. Adolescents (n = 242, M age = 15.4 years; 51% female) reported monitoring, negative reactions, warmth, antisocial behavior, depressive symptoms, and disclosure. Adolescents additionally reported antisocial behavior, depressive symptoms, and disclosure one to two years later. In cross-sectional analyses, less monitoring but more negative reactions were linked with less disclosure, suggesting that negative reactions can undermine parents' ability to obtain information. Although monitoring behaviors were not related to depressive symptoms, more negative reactions were linked with more depressive symptoms, suggesting that negative reactions also may increase depressive symptoms as a side effect of monitoring behavior. Negative reactions were not linked to antisocial behavior. There were no longitudinal links between negative reactions and changes in disclosure, antisocial behavior, or depressive symptoms.

Working Memory Impairments in Chromosome 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome: The Roles of Anxiety and Stress Physiology

Stress and anxiety have a negative impact on working memory systems by competing for executive resources and attention. Broad memory deficits, anxiety, and elevated stress have been reported in individuals with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS). We investigated anxiety and physiological stress reactivity in relation to visuospatial working memory impairments in 20 children with 22q11.2DS and 32 typically developing (TD) children ages 7 to 16. Children with 22q11.2DS demonstrated poorer working memory, reduced post-stress respiratory sinus arrhythmia recovery, and overall increased levels of cortisol in comparison to TD children. Anxiety, but not physiological stress responsivity, mediated the relationship between 22q11.2DS diagnosis and visuospatial working memory impairment. Findings indicate that anxiety exacerbates impaired working memory in children with 22q11.2DS.

Considering ERP difference scores as individual difference measures: Issues with subtraction and alternative approaches

There is growing interest in psychophysiological and neural correlates of psychopathology, personality, and other individual differences. Many studies correlate a criterion individual difference variable (e.g., anxiety) with a psychophysiological measurement derived by subtracting scores taken from two within-subject conditions. These subtraction-based difference scores are intended to increase specificity by isolating variability of interest. Using data on the error-related negativity (ERN) and correct response negativity (CRN) in relation to generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), we highlight several conceptual and practical issues with subtraction-based difference scores and propose alternative approaches based on regression. We show that ERN and CRN are highly correlated, and that the ΔERN (i.e., ERN - CRN) is correlated in opposite directions both with ERN and CRN. Bivariate analyses indicate that GAD is related to ΔERN and ERN, but not CRN. We first show that, by using residualized scores, GAD relates both to a larger ERN and smaller CRN. Moreover, by probing the interaction of ERN and CRN, we show that the relationship between GAD and ERN varies by CRN. These latter findings are not evident when using traditional subtraction-based difference scores. We then completed follow-up analyses that suggested that an increased P300 in anxious individuals gave rise to the apparent anxiety/CRN relationship observed. These findings have important conceptual implications for facilitating the interpretability of results from individual difference studies of psychophysiology.

Developmental Changes in Discrepancies Between Adolescents' and Their Mothers' Views of Family Communication

Prior work indicates that adolescents perceive the family more negatively than do their parents. These discrepant views comprise some of the most robust observations in psychological science, and are observed on survey reports collected in vastly different cultures worldwide. Yet, whether developmental changes occur with these discrepant views remains unclear. In a sample of 141 adolescents and their mothers, we examined 1-year developmental changes in discrepancies between parents' and adolescents' views of family functioning. We focused on discrepant views about a relatively covert domain of family functioning (i.e., internal views of open communication) and a relatively overt domain of such functioning (i.e., views about observable communication problems). We observed significant developmental changes in discrepant views for open communication, but not for communication problems. These findings have important implications for research examining links between discrepant views of family functioning and whether these discrepancies serve as risk or protective factors for adolescent psychosocial functioning.

Parenting adolescent drivers is both a continuation of parenting from earlier periods and an anticipation of a new challenge

Greater parental involvement in the driving process and greater parent-imposed limits on novice adolescent drivers hold promise for reducing driving fatalities. However, relatively little is known about why some parents are more involved in the driving process than others. Driving-specific parenting may be both a continuation of established patterns of parenting and a response to a novel developmental task. Adolescents (n=242, M age 15.4 years, 49% male) who were enrolled in a drivers' education courses and their parents (n=276, 70% mothers) completed questionnaires reporting pre-driving parenting styles and monitoring behaviors; the adolescents' previous driving experiences; perceptions of risks for novice adolescent drivers; attitudes regarding parental involvement; and expected levels of limit-setting and autonomy attainment once adolescents begins driving. Parents' and adolescents' involvement attitudes and expectations for limits on driving and autonomy attainment were linked in multivariate models with established patterns of parenting and perceptions of risk. The discussion emphasizes implications for prevention and intervention efforts to increase parental involvement and limits.

Family support programs and adolescent mental health: review of evidence

Family support programs aim to improve parent wellbeing and parenting as well as adolescent mental and behavioral health by addressing the needs of parents of adolescents experiencing or at risk for mental health problems. Family support programs can be part of the treatment for adolescents diagnosed with mental or behavioral health problems, or family support programs can be delivered as prevention programs designed to prevent the onset or escalation of mental or behavioral health problems. This review discusses the rationale for family support programs and describes the range of services provided by family support programs. The primary focus of the review is on evaluating the effectiveness of family support programs as treatments or prevention efforts delivered by clinicians or peers. Two main themes emerged from the review. First, family support programs that included more forms of support evidenced higher levels of effectiveness than family support programs that provided fewer forms of support. Discussion of this theme focuses on individual differences in client needs and program adaptions that may facilitate meeting diverse needs. Second, family support prevention programs appear to be most effective when serving individuals more in need of mental and behavioral health services. Discussion of this theme focuses on the intensity versus breadth of the services provided in prevention programs. More rigorous evaluations of family support programs are needed, especially for peer-delivered family support treatments.

Mother-adolescent monitoring dynamics and the legitimacy of parental authority

This multi-informant longitudinal study aimed to understand whether the family dynamics that underlie adolescent voluntary disclosure regarding their leisure time behavior differs when adolescents strongly or weakly endorse the legitimacy of parental authority. Longitudinal linkages between parental monitoring behaviors and adolescents' secrecy and disclosure were tested among youths with strong and weak legitimacy beliefs. The sample included 197 adolescents (51% female, M age 12 years) and their mothers. Mothers reported on several of their own monitoring efforts (i.e., solicitation, active involvement, observing and listening, and obtaining information from spouses, siblings, and others). Adolescents reported their disclosure, secrecy, and legitimacy beliefs. Only among youths reporting strong legitimacy beliefs, more mother engagement and supervision (indexed by mother-reported active involvement and observing and listening) predicted more adolescent disclosure and less secrecy over time, and more mother solicitation predicted less secrecy.

Testing informant discrepancies as predictors of early adolescent psychopathology: why difference scores cannot tell you what you want to know and how polynomial regression may

Multiple informants commonly disagree when reporting child and family behavior. In many studies of informant discrepancies, researchers take the difference between two informants' reports and seek to examine the link between this difference score and external constructs (e.g., child maladjustment). In this paper, we review two reasons why difference scores cannot serve as unambiguous predictors of outcomes. Further, we use polynomial regression analyses to both test the validity of difference scores and provide a more direct test of the hypothesis that discrepancies in parent and child reports predict child psychopathology. Data from 218 parent-adolescent dyads (M adolescent age = 11.5 years, 51 % female; 49 % European American, 47 % African American) were used to predict adolescent-reported antisocial behavior and depression from parent and adolescent reports of parent-adolescent conflict, parental knowledge, parental acceptance, adolescent rule-breaking behavior, and adolescent pubertal development. Results demonstrate that analyses using difference scores do not provide valid tests of the utility of informant discrepancies in predicting adolescent psychosocial maladjustment. However, interaction terms in polynomial regression analyses provide evidence that informant discrepancies predict child psychopathology. Parent-adolescent informant discrepancies predict adolescent psychopathology but researchers should avoid using difference scores to measure informant discrepancies. Polynomial regression analyses provide more comprehensive and accurate tests of whether informant discrepancies predict child and adolescent psychopathology.

Information management strategies in early adolescence: developmental change in use and transactional associations with psychological adjustment

Adolescents use various strategies to manage their parents' access to information. This study tested developmental change in strategy use, longitudinal associations between disclosing and concealing strategies, and longitudinal associations linking disclosing and concealing strategies with antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms. Self-report data (n = 218; 49% female; 49% European American, 47% African American) following Grades 5 (M age = 11 years, 11 months), 6, and 7 show that the use of disclosing strategies (e.g., telling all, telling if asked) following misbehavior declined while use of concealing strategies (e.g., omitting details, keeping secrets, lying) increased over time. Longitudinal links between strategies suggest a transactional process wherein infrequent disclosing is a gateway to concealment but concealment also predicts subsequent rank-order reductions in disclosure. Infrequent disclosing was associated with more subsequent antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms, whereas more antisocial behavior was associated with more subsequent concealment. Although absolute declines in disclosure and increases in concealment are normative, individual differences show that adolescents reporting low levels of disclosure, rather than high levels of concealment, appear to experience the most adjustment problems.

Individual differences in early adolescents' beliefs in the legitimacy of parental authority

Adolescents differ in the extent to which they believe that parents have legitimate authority to impose rules restricting adolescents' behavior. The purpose of the current study was to test predictors of individual differences in legitimacy beliefs during the middle school years. Annually, during the summers following Grades 5, 6, and 7, early adolescents (n = 218; 51% female, 47% African American, 73% in 2-parent homes) reported their beliefs regarding the legitimacy of parents' rules that restrict and monitor adolescents' free time activities. Cross-lagged analyses revealed that legitimacy beliefs were bidirectionally associated with independent decision making, psychological control, antisocial peer involvement, and resistance to control. Legitimacy beliefs declined more rapidly during the middle school years for boys than for girls and for adolescents who were older relative to their classmates. More independent decision making in Grades 5 and 6 predicted larger than expected declines in legitimacy beliefs in Grades 6 and 7. In sum, legitimacy beliefs weaken developmentally, and weaker legitimacy beliefs relative to same-grade peers are anteceded by premature autonomous experiences, psychological control, and adolescent attributes.

The equivalence of regression models using difference scores and models using separate scores for each informant: implications for the study of informant discrepancies

Research on informant discrepancies has increasingly utilized difference scores. This article demonstrates the statistical equivalence of regression models using difference scores (raw or standardized) and regression models using separate scores for each informant to show that interpretations should be consistent with both models. First, regression equations were used to demonstrate that difference score models are equivalent to models using separate scores for each informant. Second, a hypothesis-driven empirical example (218 mother-child dyads, mean age = 11.5 years, 49% female participants, 49% White, 47% African American) was used to provide an illustration of the equivalence of the 2 models. Implications of the equivalence of models using difference scores and models using separate scores for each informant are discussed in terms of the growing prevalence of an interpretation in the literature of difference score analyses that is inconsistent with results from equivalent separate informant analyses. Differences in the separate predictive ability of informants should be acknowledged as an alternative interpretation of the difference score regression coefficient.

Prospective protective effect of parents on peer influences and college alcohol involvement

This prospective study used a conceptually based risk and protective framework to investigate whether parental influences exert a protective effect on the robust association between peer influences and college alcohol involvement. Participants were incoming freshmen in the control condition of a randomized clinical trial, N = 256, 57.0% female, baseline age: M = 18.36 years (SD = 0.41). Participants completed telephone surveys in the summer before matriculation (baseline) and in the spring of the freshman (10-month) and sophomore years (22-month) with 85.6% retention at 22-months. Latent growth models were estimated for heavy episodic drinking and alcohol-related consequences. Descriptive norms and social modeling among peers were positively associated with initial heavy drinking and consequences; parental drinking permissiveness was positively associated with initial heavy drinking. Greater social modeling among peers was associated with less growth in consequences. Parental monitoring was not significantly associated with alcohol involvement. Prematriculation social modeling exhibited a weaker positive association with initial heavy drinking and consequences at low prematriculation parental drinking permissiveness compared to high. Similarly, prematriculation descriptive norms exhibited a weaker positive association with initial heavy drinking at low prematriculation parental drinking permissiveness compared to high. Prematriculation descriptive norms were not significantly associated with growth in heavy drinking at low parental drinking permissiveness; in contrast, higher prematriculation descriptive norms were associated with less growth in heavy drinking at high parental drinking permissiveness. Findings provide support for a protective parental influence on peer-alcohol relations extending into college. Parental drinking permissiveness may be an important target for parent-based interventions.

Parent-child relationships and dyadic friendship experiences as predictors of behavior problems in early adolescence

This study focused on support and conflict in parent-child relationships and dyadic friendships as predictors of behavior problems in early adolescence (n = 182; M age = 12.9 years, 51% female, 45% African American, 74% two-parent homes). Support and conflict in one relationship context were hypothesized to moderate the effects of experiences in the other relationship context. Adolescent-reported antisocial behavior was low when either parent-child relationships or friendships were low in conflict, and adolescent-reported depressed mood was low when either friendship conflict was low or parental support was high. Parent-reported antisocial behavior was high when high levels of conflict were reported in either parent-child or friendship relationships and adolescent-reported depressed mood was high when either parental or friendship support was low. Associations appear to be similar for boys and girls as no interactions involving gender were significant.

Neighborhood disadvantage as a moderator of the association between harsh parenting and toddler-aged children's internalizing and externalizing problems

Neighborhood dangerousness and belongingness were expected to moderate associations between harsh parenting and toddler-age children's problem behaviors. Fifty-five predominantly African American mothers participated with their 2-year old children. Neighborhood danger, neighborhood belongingness, and children's problem behaviors were measured with mothers' reports. Harsh parenting was measured with observer ratings. Analyses considered variance common to externalizing and internalizing problems, using a total problems score, and unique variance, by controlling for internalizing behavior when predicting externalizing behavior, and vice versa. Regarding the common variance, only the main effects of neighborhood danger and harsh parenting were significantly associated with total problem behavior. In contrast, after controlling for externalizing problems, the positive association between harsh parenting and unique variance in internalizing problems became stronger as neighborhood danger increased. No statistically significant associations emerged for the models predicting the unique variance in externalizing problems or models considering neighborhood belongingness.

Introduction to special issue. Careful conversations: adolescents managing their parents' access to information

Stattin and Kerr's (2000; Kerr & Stattin, 2000) seminal work challenged our understanding of parental monitoring, shifted attention to adolescents' agency as information managers, and pushed researchers to focus more on their measures and to think more about the interactional and relational processes that keep, or fail to keep, parents informed. Spurred by this reinterpretation of "parental monitoring", research has shifted in the last decade from a nearly exclusive focus on parents' role in socializing adolescents through monitoring their whereabouts, friendships, and activities, to a broader recognition of, and appreciation for, adolescents' active role in strategically managing their parents' access to information. This special issue showcases this new perspective by gathering a set of studies focusing collectively on a wide variety of information management strategies and exploring bidirectional links with indicators of youths' psychosocial adjustment and parent-child relationship qualities.

Developmental Trajectories and Antecedents of Distal Parental Supervision

Groups of adolescents were identified on the basis of developmental trajectories of their families' rules and their parents' knowledge of their activities. Characteristics of the adolescent, peer antisociality, and family context were tested as antecedents. In sum, 404 parent-adolescent dyads provided data for adolescents aged 10-16. Most adolescents were classified into groups characterized by low levels and reductions in family rules over time. However, low socioeconomic status and residence in unsafe neighborhoods increased membership in the group characterized by consistently high levels of family rules. Most adolescents were assigned membership in groups characterized by relatively stable moderate-to-high levels of parental knowledge of their activities. However, greater externalizing problems and peer antisociality, as well as residence in an unsafe neighborhood, increased membership in the group characterized by low and decreasing levels of knowledge. Results suggest that personal and contextual risk antecedes nonnormative decreases in parental knowledge, whereas contextual risk inhibits normative reductions in family rules.

Fraternity and sorority involvement, social influences, and alcohol use among college students: a prospective examination

This study used latent growth curve modeling to investigate whether the effects of gender and Greek involvement on alcohol use and problems over the first 2 years of college are best characterized by selection, socialization, or reciprocal influence processes. Three social influences (alcohol offers, social modeling, and perceived norms) were examined as potential mediators of these effects. Undergraduate participants (N = 388) completed self-report measures prior to enrollment and in the spring of their freshmen and sophomore years. Male gender and involvement in the Greek system were associated with greater alcohol use and problems prior to college. Both gender and Greek involvement significantly predicted increases in alcohol use and problems over the first 2 years of college. Cross-domain analyses provided strong support for a mediational role of each of the social influence constructs on alcohol use and problems prior to matriculation, and prematriculation social modeling and alcohol offers mediated relations between Greek involvement and changes in alcohol use over time. Findings suggest that students, particularly men, who affiliate with Greek organizations constitute an at-risk group prior to entering college, suggesting the need for selected interventions with this population, which should take place before or during the pledging process.

Parents' monitoring knowledge attenuates the link between antisocial friends and adolescent delinquent behavior

Developmental trajectories of parents' knowledge of their adolescents' whereabouts and activities were tested as moderators of transactional associations between friends' antisociality and adolescent delinquent behavior. 504 adolescents (50% female) provided annual reports (from ages 12 to 16) of their parents' knowledge and (from ages 13 to 16) their own delinquent behavior and their friends' antisociality. Parents also reported the adolescents' delinquent behavior. Growth mixture modeling was used to identify two sub-groups based on their monitoring knowledge growth trajectories. Adolescents in the sub-group characterized by decreasing levels of parents' knowledge reported more delinquent behavior and more friend antisociality in early adolescence, and reported greater increases in delinquent behavior and friend antisociality from early to middle adolescence compared to adolescents in the sub-group characterized by increasing levels of parents' knowledge. Transactional associations consistent with social influence and social selection processes also were suppressed in the increasing knowledge sub-group as compared to the decreasing knowledge sub-group.

Predicting the developmental course of mother-reported monitoring across childhood and adolescence from early proactive parenting, child temperament, and parents' worries

Change in mothers' reported monitoring and awareness of their children's activities and companions across Grades 5, 6, 8, and 11 were examined with the use of latent factor growth modeling. Proactive parenting and resistant-to-control (RTC) child temperament assessed prior to kindergarten, as well as parents' worries about their children's behavior in Grades 5 and 8, were tested as factors associated with change in monitoring over time. Higher proactive parenting, lower RTC temperament, and the mounting of a successful campaign to change their children's behavior were associated with higher monitoring scores overall. Monitoring levels decreased across time, but the rate of decline was steeper among mothers with high RTC children and slower among mothers who mounted a campaign and judged it to be effective. These findings shed light on factors contributing to continuity and change across development in a key domain of parenting.

Peer relationship antecedents of delinquent behavior in late adolescence: Is there evidence of demographic group differences in developmental processes?

A longitudinal prospective design was used to test the generalizability of low levels of social preference and high levels of antisocial peer involvement as risk factors for delinquent behavior problems to African American (AA) and European American (EA) boys and girls (N = 384). Social preference scores were computed from peer reports in middle childhood (ages 6-9). Parents and adolescents reported antisocial peer involvement in early adolescence (ages 13-16) and adolescents reported on their own delinquent behavior in late adolescence (ages 17 and 18). Analyses tested for differences across four groups (AA boys, EA boys, AA girls, EA girls) in construct measurement, mean levels, and associations among variables. Few measurement differences were found. Mean-level differences were found for social preference and delinquent behavior. AA boys were least accepted by peers and reported the highest level of delinquent behavior. EA girls were most accepted by peers and reported the lowest level of delinquent behavior. Associations among peer experiences and delinquent behavior were equivalent across groups, with lower levels of social preference and higher levels of antisocial peer involvement associated with more delinquent behavior. Person-centered analyses showed the risk associated with low social preference and high antisocial peer involvement to be similar across groups, providing further evidence of the generalizability of the peer relationship experiences as risk factors for subsequent delinquent behavior problems.

Change in Parents' Monitoring Knowledge: Links with Parenting, Relationship Quality, Adolescent Beliefs, and Antisocial Behavior

A longitudinal prospective design was used to examine antisocial behavior, two aspects of the parent-child relationship, inept parenting, and adolescents' beliefs in the appropriateness of monitoring as predictors of parents' monitoring and change in monitoring during the high school years. 426 adolescents provided reports of their parents' monitoring knowledge during four yearly assessments beginning the summer before entering grade 9. Greater concurrent levels of monitoring knowledge were associated with less antisocial behavior, more parent-reported relationship enjoyment, adolescents and parents spending more time together, and adolescents reporting stronger beliefs in the appropriateness of parental monitoring. Weaker knowledge beliefs predicted increases in monitoring knowledge over time. More antisocial behavior problems were linked to lower levels of knowledge through less enjoyable parent-adolescent relationships, parents and adolescents spending less time together, and adolescents reporting weaker monitoring beliefs. Discussion focuses on processes linking antisocial behavior problems with low levels of monitoring knowledge.

Parents' monitoring-relevant knowledge and adolescents' delinquent behavior: evidence of correlated developmental changes and reciprocal influences

Links between parental knowledge and adolescent delinquent behavior were tested for correlated rates of developmental change and reciprocal associations. For 4 years beginning at age 14, adolescents (N = 396) reported on their delinquent behavior and on their parents' knowledge of their whereabouts and activities. Parents completed measures of their adolescents' delinquent behavior. Knowledge was negatively correlated with delinquent behaviors at baseline, and increases over time in knowledge were negatively correlated with increases in parent-reported delinquent behavior. Reciprocal associations indicate that low levels of parental knowledge predict increases in delinquent behavior and that high levels of delinquent behavior predict decreases in knowledge. Discussion considers both youth-driven and parent-driven processes that may account for the correlated developmental changes and reciprocal associations.

Contextual determinants of mothers' interventions in young children's peer interactions

In this study, the role of context in mothers' interventions in their preschool children's peer relationship problems was investigated. Event theme (aggression, peer rebuff, or initiating play), the child's role in the event (actor or target), the child's age and sex, and the mother's emotional reaction were examined as predictors of the extent to which mothers (N = 71) said they would discuss peer relationships, encourage peer interaction, and use power assertion in response to a series of videotaped vignettes depicting common peer relationship problems. Mothers suggested using more discussion in aggressive situations and more encouragement in initiating play situations. Mothers said they would use more power assertion when the child was the actor (i.e., provocateur), rather than the target, in an aggressive situation. Findings are discussed in terms of (a) the importance of considering context in understanding how mothers intervene in their children's peer relationships and (b) the need to examine moderators of cross-contextual consistency in mothers' interventions.

Fall history is an independent predictor of adverse health outcomes and utilization in the elderly

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether a history of falls predicts functional decline, adverse health events, and hospitalization.

STUDY DESIGN

Twelve-month prospective cohort study.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Participants were members of a Medicare managed care program. Outcomes were assessed each quarter and included functional status, healthcare utilization (hospitalization), and adverse events (hospitalizations, nursing home placement, or death). Subject healthcare utilization diaries were corroborated with health system data files.

RESULTS

At baseline, 70% reported no falls (NF), 18% had 1 fall (F), and 12% reported 2 or more falls (RF). Fall status predicted functional decline; new ADL deficits were seen in 18% of NF, 28% of F, and 55% of RF (P < or = .0001). Following adjustment for baseline function, this association remained predictive (adjusted odds ratio [OR] for new ADL deficits: 3.5, P = .007; and for new ADL and IADL deficits: 12.0, P= .0001). Fall frequency was a univariate predictor of adverse events (hospitalizations, nursing home placement, or death) and of hospital utilization alone. One or more adverse event(s) occurred in 18% of NF, 22% of F, and 38% of RF (P = .049). Hospitalization occurred in 16% of NF, 22% in F, and 35% of RF (P = .03). Following adjustment for likelihood of future hospitalization (P(ra)), these associations remained predictive for RF (adjusted OR for one or more adverse event[s]: 2.4, P = .05; OR for hospitalization 2.4, P = .06).

CONCLUSIONS

Fall history predicts decline in function, hospitalization, and adverse events among a Medicare managed care population and remains independently predictive of poor outcomes after controlling for baseline function and likelihood of future hospitalization.

Antecedents and behavior-problem outcomes of parental monitoring and psychological control in early adolescence

The early childhood antecedents and behavior-problem correlates of monitoring and psychological control were examined in this prospective, longitudinal, multi-informant study. Parenting data were collected during home visit interviews with 440 mothers and their 13-year-old children. Behavior problems (anxiety/depression and delinquent behavior) were assessed via mother, teacher, and/or adolescent reports at ages 8 through 10 years and again at ages 13 through 14. Home-interview data collected at age 5 years were used to measure antecedent parenting (harsh/reactive, positive/proactive), family background (e.g., socioeconomic status), and mother-rated child behavior problems. Consistent with expectation, monitoring was anteceded by a proactive parenting style and by advantageous family-ecological characteristics, and psychological control was anteceded by harsh parenting and by mothers' earlier reports of child externalizing problems. Consistent with prior research, monitoring was associated with fewer delinquent behavior problems. Links between psychological control and adjustment were more complex: High levels of psychological control were associated with more delinquent problems for girls and for teens who were low in preadolescent delinquent problems, and with more anxiety/depression for girls and for teens who were high in preadolescent anxiety/depression.

Peer rejection in childhood, involvement with antisocial peers in early adolescence, and the development of externalizing behavior problems

A longitudinal, prospective design was used to examine the roles of peer rejection in middle childhood and antisocial peer involvement in early adolescence in the development of adolescent externalizing behavior problems. Both early starter and late starter pathways were considered. Classroom sociometric interviews from ages 6 through 9 years, adolescent reports of peers' behavior at age 13 years, and parent, teacher, and adolescent self-reports of externalizing behavior problems from age 5 through 14 years were available for 400 adolescents. Results indicate that experiencing peer rejection in elementary school and greater involvement with antisocial peers in early adolescence are correlated but that these peer relationship experiences may represent two different pathways to adolescent externalizing behavior problems. Peer rejection experiences, but not involvement with antisocial peers. predict later externalizing behavior problems when controlling for stability in externalizing behavior. Externalizing problems were most common when rejection was experienced repeatedly. Early externalizing problems did not appear to moderate the relation between peer rejection and later problem behavior. Discussion highlights multiple pathways connecting externalizing behavior problems from early childhood through adolescence with peer relationship experiences in middle childhood and early adolescence.

If it's offered, will they come? Influences on parents' participation in a community-based conduct problems prevention program

This study examined influences on the rate and quality of parent participation in the Fast Track Program, a multi-system, longitudinal preventive intervention for children who are at risk for conduct problems. A theoretical model of the relations among family coordinator characteristics, parent characteristics, the therapeutic engagement between family coordinator and parent, and rate and quality of parent participation was the basis for this study. "Family coordinators" are the Fast Track program personnel who conduct group-based parent-training sessions and home visits. Participants in this study included 12 family coordinators (42% were African American, 58% European American) and 87 parents (55% were African American, 45% European American). The level of therapeutic engagement between the parent and the family coordinator was positively associated with the rate of parent attendance at group training sessions. The extent of family coordinator-parent racial and socioeconomic similarity and the extent of the family coordinator's relevant life experiences were highly associated with the level of therapeutic engagement. The quality, but not the rate, of participation was lower for African American parents. Implications of these findings for preventive intervention with this population are discussed.

Best Friendships, Group Relationships, and Antisocial Behavior in Early Adolescence

Correlations between adolescents' own antisocial behavior and adolescents' perceptions of the antisocial behavior of their best friends and friendship groups were examined in this study. The strength of those correlations was expected to vary as a function of the qualities of the dyadic friendships and group relationships. Perceptions of peers' antisocial behavior and dyadic friendship and group relationship qualities were collected through interviews with 431, 12- through 13-year-old adolescents. Measures of adolescents' concurrent and subsequent antisocial behaviors were obtained from the adolescents and their teachers. Adolescents who perceived their friends and groups as participating in antisocial behavior had higher self-reported and teacher-reported antisocial behavior ratings. Perceptions of best friend antisocial behavior were correlated more strongly with adolescents' own concurrent, but not subsequent, antisocial behavior when high levels of help, companionship, and security characterized dyadic friendships. The results are discussed in terms of peer influence and friendship selection processes.

Management of hypertension for stroke prevention in older people

It is no longer acceptable to attribute elevated blood pressure in elderly people to the natural processes of aging and thereby withhold treatment. Sound evidence demonstrates increased risk of cardiovascular disease with increasing levels of blood pressure and decreased incidence of cardiovascular disease with blood pressure control. Hypertension is known to be the most modifiable risk factor for stroke. Given projected demographic shifts in the population, the number of older Americans with hypertension and increased risk of morbidity and mortality from stroke will grow during the first part of the next century. Health care providers should familiarize themselves with the unique pathophysiology of hypertension in elderly people, and integrate appropriate approaches to comprehensive evaluation and management into practice.

Internal representational models of peers: implications for the development of problematic behavior

The authors investigated the relation between children's knowledge structures for peers and externalizing behavior problems. Initial levels of aggression were evaluated in 135 boys and 124 girls (Grades 1-3; 40% African American, 60% Caucasian) in Year 1 and again in Years 6 and 9. In Year 6, 3 aspects of their social knowledge structures were assessed: quality, density, and appropriateness. Results indicate that knowledge structures are related to children's concurrent levels of externalizing behaviors and that knowledge structures are related to children's concurrent levels of externalizing behaviors and predict externalizing behaviors 3 years later even after controlling for current levels of behavior. In addition, knowledge structures in Year 6 mediate the relation between aggression in Year 1 and externalizing behaviors in Year 9. The role of knowledge structures in the maintenance and growth of children's antisocial behavior is discussed.

The distinction between beliefs legitimizing aggression and deviant processing of social cues: testing measurement validity and the hypothesis that biased processing mediates the effects of beliefs on aggression. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group

In 2 studies the authors examined knowledge and social information-processing mechanisms as 2 distinct sources of influence on child aggression. Data were collected from 387 boys and girls of diverse ethnicity in 3 successive years. In Study 1, confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated the discriminant validity of the knowledge construct of aggression beliefs and the processing constructs of hostile intent attributions, accessing of aggressive responses, and positive evaluation of aggressive outcomes. In Study 2, structural equation modeling analyses were used to test the mediation hypothesis that aggression beliefs would influence child aggression through the effects of deviant processing. A stronger belief that aggressive retaliation is acceptable predicted more deviant processing 1 year later and more aggression 2 years later. However, this latter effect was substantially accounted for by the intervening effects of deviant processing on aggression.

The distinction between beliefs legitimizing aggression and deviant processing of social cues: testing measurement validity and the hypothesis that biased processing mediates the effects of beliefs on aggression. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group

In 2 studies the authors examined knowledge and social information-processing mechanisms as 2 distinct sources of influence on child aggression. Data were collected from 387 boys and girls of diverse ethnicity in 3 successive years. In Study 1, confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated the discriminant validity of the knowledge construct of aggression beliefs and the processing constructs of hostile intent attributions, accessing of aggressive responses, and positive evaluation of aggressive outcomes. In Study 2, structural equation modeling analyses were used to test the mediation hypothesis that aggression beliefs would influence child aggression through the effects of deviant processing. A stronger belief that aggressive retaliation is acceptable predicted more deviant processing 1 year later and more aggression 2 years later. However, this latter effect was substantially accounted for by the intervening effects of deviant processing on aggression.

Internal representational models of peers: implications for the development of problematic behavior

The authors investigated the relation between children's knowledge structures for peers and externalizing behavior problems. Initial levels of aggression were evaluated in 135 boys and 124 girls (Grades 1-3; 40% African American, 60% Caucasian) in Year 1 and again in Years 6 and 9. In Year 6, 3 aspects of their social knowledge structures were assessed: quality, density, and appropriateness. Results indicate that knowledge structures are related to children's concurrent levels of externalizing behaviors and that knowledge structures are related to children's concurrent levels of externalizing behaviors and predict externalizing behaviors 3 years later even after controlling for current levels of behavior. In addition, knowledge structures in Year 6 mediate the relation between aggression in Year 1 and externalizing behaviors in Year 9. The role of knowledge structures in the maintenance and growth of children's antisocial behavior is discussed.