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Weatherup EF, Carnegie RB, Strand AE, Sotka EE. Co-phylogeographic structure in a disease-causing parasite and its oyster host. Parasitology 2024:1-30. [PMID: 38769826 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182024000611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- E F Weatherup
- Virgina Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, USA
| | - R B Carnegie
- Virgina Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, USA
| | - A E Strand
- College of Charleston Marine Laboratory and Department of Biology, College of Charleston, 205 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston SC 29412, USA
| | - E E Sotka
- College of Charleston Marine Laboratory and Department of Biology, College of Charleston, 205 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston SC 29412, USA
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Prossner KM, Small HJ, Carnegie RB, Unger MA. Immunofluorescence Visualization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Mixtures in the Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023; 42:475-480. [PMID: 36511524 PMCID: PMC10107493 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Bivalve mollusks including oysters have low metabolic potential and are therefore susceptible to accumulating high levels of lipophilic organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Human exposure to PAHs via consumption of this important commercial shellfish can be a serious public health concern in areas where high PAH contamination exists. Previous PAH immunohistochemical studies have been limited to laboratory-based exposures focusing on one or a few individual PAH compounds. To date, such studies have yet to explore PAH accumulation in oysters, known to have some of the highest levels of PAHs across different food products. Using a monoclonal antibody selective for a range of three- to five-ring PAHs, we present a method to detect and localize complex mixtures of PAHs in oyster tissues via fluorescent immunohistochemistry. Observed immunofluorescence intensity followed a similar trend as measured levels of PAHs in oyster interstitial fluid from PAH-contaminated sites and oysters exposed to the water accommodated fraction of crude oil. This method will be valuable in understanding internal partitioning mechanisms of PAH-exposed oysters and will have important applications in studies on PAH distribution in the tissues of additional organisms for environmental, medical, or veterinary purposes. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:475-480. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen M. Prossner
- Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceWilliam & MaryGloucester PointVirginiaUSA
| | - Hamish J. Small
- Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceWilliam & MaryGloucester PointVirginiaUSA
| | - Ryan B. Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceWilliam & MaryGloucester PointVirginiaUSA
| | - Michael A. Unger
- Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceWilliam & MaryGloucester PointVirginiaUSA
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Safi LS, Tang KW, Carnegie RB. Investigating the epibiotic peritrich Zoothamnium intermedium : seasonality and distribution of its relationships with copepods in chesapeake bay (USA). Eur J Protistol 2022; 84:125880. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2022.125880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Bienlien LM, Audemard C, Reece KS, Carnegie RB. Impact of parasitism on levels of human-pathogenic Vibrio species in eastern oysters. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 132:760-771. [PMID: 34487403 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the relationships between individual health status of oysters, particularly with regard to parasitic infection, and variability in abundance of human-pathogenic Vibrio species. METHODS AND RESULTS Aquacultured eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, were analysed individually for infection by the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus through quantitative PCR, and total Vibrio vulnificus and total and pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus abundance was assessed using a most probable number (MPN)-qPCR approach. Additionally, perspective on general oyster health and other parasitic infections was obtained through histopathology. Perkinsus marinus infection and human-pathogenic Vibrio species levels were not correlated, but through histology, analyses revealed that oysters infected by Haplosporidium nelsoni harboured more V. vulnificus. CONCLUSIONS The highly prevalent parasite P. marinus had little influence on human-pathogenic Vibrio species levels in eastern oysters, but the less prevalent parasite, H. nelsoni, may influence V. vulnificus levels, highlighting the potential nuances of within-oyster dynamics of Vibrio species. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Human-pathogenic bacteria continue to be a concern to the oyster industry and causes for individual oyster variation in bacterial levels remain unknown. The major oyster pathogen P. marinus does not appear to affect levels of these bacteria within oysters, suggesting that other factors may influence Vibrio spp. levels in oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia M Bienlien
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USA
| | - Corinne Audemard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USA
| | - Kimberly S Reece
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USA
| | - Ryan B Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, USA
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Gustafson LL, Arzul I, Burge CA, Carnegie RB, Caceres-Martinez J, Creekmore L, Dewey W, Elston R, Friedman CS, Hick P, Hudson K, Lupo C, Rheault R, Spiegel K, Vásquez-Yeomans R. Optimizing surveillance for early disease detection: Expert guidance for Ostreid herpesvirus surveillance design and system sensitivity calculation. Prev Vet Med 2021; 194:105419. [PMID: 34274864 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
To keep pace with rising opportunities for disease emergence and spread, surveillance in aquaculture must enable the early detection of both known and new pathogens. Conventional surveillance systems (designed to provide proof of disease freedom) may not support detection outside of periodic sampling windows, leaving substantial blind spots to pathogens that emerge in other times and places. To address this problem, we organized an expert panel to envision optimal systems for early disease detection, focusing on Ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1), a pathogen of panzootic consequence to oyster industries. The panel followed an integrative group process to identify and weight surveillance system traits perceived as critical to the early detection of OsHV-1. Results offer a road map with fourteen factors to consider when building surveillance systems geared to early detection; factor weights can be used by planners and analysts to compare the relative value of different designs or enhancements. The results were also used to build a simple, but replicable, model estimating the system sensitivity (SSe) of observational surveillance and, in turn, the confidence in disease freedom that negative reporting can provide. Findings suggest that optimally designed observational systems can contribute substantially to both early detection and disease freedom confidence. In contrast, active surveillance as a singular system is likely insufficient for early detection. The strongest systems combined active with observational surveillance and engaged joint industry and government involvement: results suggest that effective partnerships can generate highly sensitive systems, whereas ineffective partnerships may seriously erode early detection capability. Given the costs of routine testing, and the value (via averted losses) of early detection, we conclude that observational surveillance is an important and potentially very effective tool for health management and disease prevention on oyster farms, but one that demands careful planning and participation. This evaluation centered on OsHV-1 detection in farmed oyster populations. However, many of the features likely generalize to other pathogens and settings, with the important caveat that the pathogens need to manifest via morbidity or mortality events in the species, life stages and environments under observation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori L Gustafson
- Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2150 Centre Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA.
| | - Isabelle Arzul
- Laboratoire de Genetique et Pathologie des Mollusques Marins, Ifremer, SG2M-LGPMM, Avenue de Mus de Loup, La Tremblade, 17390, France
| | - Colleen A Burge
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 701 E Pratt Street, Baltimore, MD, 21202, USA
| | - Ryan B Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Jorge Caceres-Martinez
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada (CICESE), Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana No. 3918, Zona Playitas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22860, Mexico
| | - Lynn Creekmore
- Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2150 Centre Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA
| | - William Dewey
- Taylor Shellfish Farms, 130 SE Lynch Rd., Shelton, WA, 98584, USA
| | - Ralph Elston
- AquaTechnics Inc. PO Box 687, Carlsborg, WA, 98324, USA
| | - Carolyn S Friedman
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Box 355020, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Paul Hick
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, 425 Werombi Road, Camden, New South Wales, 2570, Australia
| | - Karen Hudson
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Coralie Lupo
- Laboratoire de Genetique et Pathologie des Mollusques Marins, Ifremer, SG2M-LGPMM, Avenue de Mus de Loup, La Tremblade, 17390, France
| | - Robert Rheault
- East Coast Shellfish Growers Association, 1121 Mooresfield Rd., Wakefield, RI, 02879, USA
| | - Kevin Spiegel
- Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2150 Centre Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA
| | - Rebeca Vásquez-Yeomans
- Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada (CICESE), Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana No. 3918, Zona Playitas, Ensenada, Baja California, 22860, Mexico
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Pagenkopp Lohan KM, Hill-Spanik KM, Torchin ME, Fleischer RC, Carnegie RB, Reece KS, Ruiz GM. Phylogeography and connectivity of molluscan parasites: Perkinsus spp. in Panama and beyond. Int J Parasitol 2018; 48:135-144. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Carnegie RB, Arzul I, Bushek D. Managing marine mollusc diseases in the context of regional and international commerce: policy issues and emerging concerns. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:rstb.2015.0215. [PMID: 26880834 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine mollusc production contributes to food and economic security worldwide and provides valuable ecological services, yet diseases threaten these industries and wild populations. Although the infrastructure for mollusc aquaculture health management is well characterized, its foundations are not without flaws. Use of notifiable pathogen lists can leave blind spots with regard to detection of unlisted and emerging pathogens. Increased reliance on molecular tools has come without similar attention to diagnostic validation, raising questions about assay performance, and has been accompanied by a reduced emphasis on microscopic diagnostic expertise that could weaken pathogen detection capabilities. Persistent questions concerning pathogen biology and ecology promote regulatory paralysis that impedes trade and which could weaken biosecurity by driving commerce to surreptitious channels. Solutions that might be pursued to improve shellfish aquaculture health management include the establishment of more broad-based surveillance programmes, wider training and use of general methods like histopathology to ensure alertness to emerging diseases, an increased focus on assay assessment and validation as fundamental to assay development, investment in basic research, and application of risk analyses to improve regulation. A continual sharpening of diagnostic tools and approaches and deepening of scientific knowledge is necessary to manage diseases and promote sustainable molluscan shellfish industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Carnegie
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
| | - Isabelle Arzul
- Ifremer, SG2M-LGPMM, Laboratoire de Génétique et Pathologie des Mollusques Marins, Avenue de Mus de Loup, La Tremblade 17390, France
| | - David Bushek
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ 08349, USA
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Groner ML, Maynard J, Breyta R, Carnegie RB, Dobson A, Friedman CS, Froelich B, Garren M, Gulland FMD, Heron SF, Noble RT, Revie CW, Shields JD, Vanderstichel R, Weil E, Wyllie-Echeverria S, Harvell CD. Managing marine disease emergencies in an era of rapid change. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:rstb.2015.0364. [PMID: 26880835 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious marine diseases can decimate populations and are increasing among some taxa due to global change and our increasing reliance on marine environments. Marine diseases become emergencies when significant ecological, economic or social impacts occur. We can prepare for and manage these emergencies through improved surveillance, and the development and iterative refinement of approaches to mitigate disease and its impacts. Improving surveillance requires fast, accurate diagnoses, forecasting disease risk and real-time monitoring of disease-promoting environmental conditions. Diversifying impact mitigation involves increasing host resilience to disease, reducing pathogen abundance and managing environmental factors that facilitate disease. Disease surveillance and mitigation can be adaptive if informed by research advances and catalysed by communication among observers, researchers and decision-makers using information-sharing platforms. Recent increases in the awareness of the threats posed by marine diseases may lead to policy frameworks that facilitate the responses and management that marine disease emergencies require.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya L Groner
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiological Research, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Jeffrey Maynard
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA Laboratoire d'Excellence 'CORAIL' USR 3278 CNRS-EPHE, CRIOBE, Papetoai, Moorea, French Polynesia
| | - Rachel Breyta
- School of Aquatic and Fisheries Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Ryan B Carnegie
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
| | - Andy Dobson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Carolyn S Friedman
- School of Aquatic and Fisheries Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Brett Froelich
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA
| | - Melissa Garren
- Division of Science and Environmental Policy, California State University Monterey Bay, 100 Campus Center, Seaside, CA 93955, USA
| | | | - Scott F Heron
- NOAA Coral Reef Watch, NESDIS Center for Satellite Applications and Research, 5830 University Research Ct., E/RA3, College Park, MD 20740, USA Marine Geophysical Laboratory, Physics Department, College of Science, Technology and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4814, Australia
| | - Rachel T Noble
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA
| | - Crawford W Revie
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiological Research, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Jeffrey D Shields
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
| | - Raphaël Vanderstichel
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiological Research, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Ernesto Weil
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, PR 00680, USA
| | - Sandy Wyllie-Echeverria
- Friday Harbor Laboratories, University of Washington, Friday Harbor, WA 98250, USA Center for Marine and Environmental Studies, University of the Virgin Islands, St Thomas, VI 00802, USA
| | - C Drew Harvell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Rodgers CJ, Carnegie RB, Chávez-Sánchez MC, Martínez-Chávez CC, Furones Nozal MD, Hine PM. Legislative and regulatory aspects of molluscan health management. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 131:242-55. [PMID: 26146227 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Revised: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The world population is growing quickly and there is a need to make sustainable protein available through an integrated approach that includes marine aquaculture. Seafood is already a highly traded commodity but the production from capture fisheries is rarely sustainable, which makes mollusc culture more important. However, an important constraint to its continued expansion is the potential for trade movements to disseminate pathogens that can cause disease problems and loss of production. Therefore, this review considers legislative and regulatory aspects of molluscan health management that have historically attempted to control the spread of mollusc pathogens. It is argued that the legislation has been slow to react to emerging diseases and the appearance of exotic pathogens in new areas. In addition, illegal trade movements are taken into account and possible future developments related to improvements in areas such as data collection and diagnostic techniques, as well as epidemiology, traceability and risk analysis, are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Rodgers
- IRTA-SCR, C/Poble Nou s/n, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, 43540 Tarragona, Spain.
| | - R B Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, USA
| | - M C Chávez-Sánchez
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo (CIAD), Unidad Mazatlán, Av. Sábalo Cerritos s/n, Mazatlán, 82100 Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - C C Martínez-Chávez
- Laboratorio de Acuicultura y Nutrición, Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales, UMSNH, Av. San Juanito Itzícuaro s/n, Morelia, 58330 Michoacán, Mexico
| | - M D Furones Nozal
- IRTA-SCR, C/Poble Nou s/n, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, 43540 Tarragona, Spain
| | - P M Hine
- 73 rue de la Fée au Bois, 17450 Fouras, France
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Breitburg DL, Hondorp D, Audemard C, Carnegie RB, Burrell RB, Trice M, Clark V. Landscape-level variation in disease susceptibility related to shallow-water hypoxia. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116223. [PMID: 25671595 PMCID: PMC4324988 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diel-cycling hypoxia is widespread in shallow portions of estuaries and lagoons, especially in systems with high nutrient loads resulting from human activities. Far less is known about the effects of this form of hypoxia than deeper-water seasonal or persistent low dissolved oxygen. We examined field patterns of diel-cycling hypoxia and used field and laboratory experiments to test its effects on acquisition and progression of Perkinsus marinus infections in the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, as well as on oyster growth and filtration. P. marinus infections cause the disease known as Dermo, have been responsible for declines in oyster populations, and have limited success of oyster restoration efforts. The severity of diel-cycling hypoxia varied among shallow monitored sites in Chesapeake Bay, and average daily minimum dissolved oxygen was positively correlated with average daily minimum pH. In both field and laboratory experiments, diel-cycling hypoxia increased acquisition and progression of infections, with stronger results found for younger (1-year-old) than older (2-3-year-old) oysters, and more pronounced effects on both infections and growth found in the field than in the laboratory. Filtration by oysters was reduced during brief periods of exposure to severe hypoxia. This should have reduced exposure to waterborne P. marinus, and contributed to the negative relationship found between hypoxia frequency and oyster growth. Negative effects of hypoxia on the host immune response is, therefore, the likely mechanism leading to elevated infections in oysters exposed to hypoxia relative to control treatments. Because there is considerable spatial variation in the frequency and severity of hypoxia, diel-cycling hypoxia may contribute to landscape-level spatial variation in disease dynamics within and among estuarine systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise L. Breitburg
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
| | - Darryl Hondorp
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
- USGS Great Lakes Science Center, 1451 Green Road, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, United States of America
| | - Corinne Audemard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, United States of America
| | - Ryan B. Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, United States of America
| | - Rebecca B. Burrell
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
| | - Mark Trice
- Maryland Department of Natural Resources, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, MD, 21401, United States of America
| | - Virginia Clark
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater, MD, 21037, United States of America
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Abstract
First discovered decades ago, microcell protistan parasites of the genera Bonamia and Mikrocytos remain relevant today for their economic impacts on growing molluscan aquaculture industries and fisheries. Bonamia parasites have received more attention over the years in part because they are more widespread and thus of wider concern, but there has been renewed interest in Mikrocytos recently with the generation of important new findings. Among these has been the surprising observation that Mikrocytos has phylogenetic affinities to the Rhizaria, which includes the haplosporidian protists and the genus Bonamia. This Diseases of Aquatic Organisms Special, emerging from the 5th Meeting of the Microcell Working Group held at the Central Veterinary Institute, Lelystad, the Netherlands, in February 2012, presents new insights into Mikrocytos and Bonamia diversity, distributions, diagnostics, ultrastructure, and infection dynamics, and captures major developments in the field since the last review of these genera in 2004.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA
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Hine PM, Carnegie RB, Kroeck MA, Villalba A, Engelsma MY, Burreson EM. Ultrastructural comparison of Bonamia spp. (Haplosporidia) infecting ostreid oysters. Dis Aquat Organ 2014; 110:55-63. [PMID: 25060497 DOI: 10.3354/dao02747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The ultrastructure of Bonamia from Ostrea angasi from Australia, Crassostrea ariakensis from the USA, O. puelchana from Argentina and O. edulis from Spain was compared with described Bonamia spp. All appear conspecific with B. exitiosa. The Bonamia sp. from Chile had similarities to the type B. exitiosa from New Zealand (NZ), but less so than the other forms recognized as B. exitiosa. Two groups of ultrastructural features were identified; those associated with metabolism (mitochondrial profiles, lipid droplets and endoplasmic reticulum), and those associated with haplosporogenesis (Golgi, indentations in the nuclear surface, the putative trans-Golgi network, perinuclear granular material and haplosporosome-like bodies). Metabolic features were regarded as having little taxonomic value, and as the process of haplosporogenesis is not understood, only haplosporosome shape and size may be of taxonomic value. However, the uni-nucleate stages of spore-forming haplosporidians are poorly known and may be confused with Bonamia spp. uni-nucleate stages. The many forms of NZ B. exitiosa have not been observed in other hosts, which may indicate that it has a plastic life cycle. Although there are similarities between NZ B. exitiosa and Chilean Bonamia in the development of a larger uni-nucleate stage and the occurrence of cylindrical confronting cisternae, the clarification of the identity of Chilean Bonamia must await molecular studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Hine
- Investigation and Diagnostic Centre, Biosecurity New Zealand, PO Box 40-742, Upper Hutt 6007, New Zealand
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Hill KM, Stokes NA, Webb SC, Hine PM, Kroeck MA, Moore JD, Morley MS, Reece KS, Burreson EM, Carnegie RB. Phylogenetics of Bonamia parasites based on small subunit and internal transcribed spacer region ribosomal DNA sequence data. Dis Aquat Organ 2014; 110:33-54. [PMID: 25060496 DOI: 10.3354/dao02738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The genus Bonamia (Haplosporidia) includes economically significant oyster parasites. Described species were thought to have fairly circumscribed host and geographic ranges: B. ostreae infecting Ostrea edulis in Europe and North America, B. exitiosa infecting O. chilensis in New Zealand, and B. roughleyi infecting Saccostrea glomerata in Australia. The discovery of B. exitiosa-like parasites in new locations and the observation of a novel species, B. perspora, in non-commercial O. stentina altered this perception and prompted our wider evaluation of the global diversity of Bonamia parasites. Samples of 13 oyster species from 21 locations were screened for Bonamia spp. by PCR, and small subunit and internal transcribed spacer regions of Bonamia sp. ribosomal DNA were sequenced from PCR-positive individuals. Infections were confirmed histologically. Phylogenetic analyses using parsimony and Bayesian methods revealed one species, B. exitiosa, to be widely distributed, infecting 7 oyster species from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, eastern and western USA, and Tunisia. More limited host and geographic distributions of B. ostreae and B. perspora were confirmed, but nothing genetically identifiable as B. roughleyi was found in Australia or elsewhere. Newly discovered diversity included a Bonamia sp. in Dendostrea sandvicensis from Hawaii, USA, that is basal to the other Bonamia species and a Bonamia sp. in O. edulis from Tomales Bay, California, USA, that is closely related to both B. exitiosa and the previously observed Bonamia sp. from O. chilensis in Chile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina M Hill
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA
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Audemard C, Carnegie RB, Hill KM, Peterson CH, Burreson EM. Bonamia exitiosa transmission among, and incidence in, Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis under warm euhaline conditions. Dis Aquat Organ 2014; 110:143-150. [PMID: 25060506 DOI: 10.3354/dao02648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Previously reported in Australia, New Zealand, and more recently in Europe, the protistan parasite Bonamia exitiosa was also reported in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA after causing serious mortalities there in the Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis. At the time, this oyster was being considered for introduction, and the potential consequences of introducing this species were being assessed using field and laboratory studies. B. exitiosa emerged as the most serious disease threat for this oyster species, especially under warm euhaline conditions and for oysters <50 mm in size. To better evaluate how quickly this parasite may be able to spread among C. ariakensis, we investigated B. exitiosa transmission and incidence in C. ariakensis. During a first trial, potential direct transmission of B. exitiosa was evaluated by cohabitating infected C. ariakensis with uninfected C. ariakensis under in vivo quarantine conditions. In a second experiment, B. exitiosa incidence was estimated in situ by determining its prevalence in C. ariakensis deployed in an enzootic area after 4, 7, 14, 21 and 28 d of exposure. Results suggest that under warm euhaline conditions B. exitiosa can be transmitted among C. ariakensis without requiring any other parasite source and that parasite incidence may be at least as high as 40% after only 4 d exposure to an enzootic area. These results underscored the severity of the bonamiasis disease threat to C. ariakensis and provided further evidence that efforts to build an aquaculture industry based on C. ariakensis in the eastern USA might have been thwarted by parasitic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Audemard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA
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Engelsma MY, Culloty SC, Lynch SA, Arzul I, Carnegie RB. Bonamia parasites: a rapidly changing perspective on a genus of important mollusc pathogens. Dis Aquat Organ 2014; 110:5-23. [PMID: 25060494 DOI: 10.3354/dao02741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Organisms of the genus Bonamia are intracellular protistan parasites of oysters. To date, 4 species have been described (B. ostreae, B. exitiosa, B. perspora and B. roughleyi), although the status of B. roughleyi is controversial. Introduction especially of B. ostreae and B. exitiosa to naïve host populations has been shown to cause mass mortalities in the past and has had a dramatic impact on oyster production. Both B. ostreae and B. exitiosa are pathogens notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the European Union. Effective management of the disease caused by these pathogens is complicated by the extensive nature of the oyster production process and limited options for disease control of the cultured stocks in open water. This review focuses on the recent advances in research on genetic relationships between Bonamia isolates, geographical distribution, susceptible host species, diagnostics, epizootiology, host-parasite interactions, and disease resistance and control of this globally important genus of oyster pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Y Engelsma
- Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR (CVI), PO Box 65, 8200 AB, Lelystad, The Netherlands
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Spiers ZB, Gabor M, Fell SA, Carnegie RB, Dove M, O'Connor W, Frances J, Go J, Marsh IB, Jenkins C. Longitudinal study of winter mortality disease in Sydney rock oysters Saccostrea glomerata. Dis Aquat Organ 2014; 110:151-164. [PMID: 25060507 DOI: 10.3354/dao02629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Winter mortality (WM) is a poorly studied disease affecting Sydney rock oysters Saccostrea glomerata in estuaries in New South Wales, Australia, where it can cause significant losses. WM is more severe in oysters cultured deeper in the water column and appears linked to higher salinities. Current dogma is that WM is caused by the microcell parasite Bonamia roughleyi, but evidence linking clinical signs and histopathology to molecular data identifying bonamiasis is lacking. We conducted a longitudinal study between February and November 2010 in 2 estuaries where WM has occurred (Georges and Shoalhaven Rivers). Results from molecular testing of experimental oysters for Bonamia spp. were compared to clinical disease signs and histopathology. Available environmental data from the study sites were also collated and compared. Oyster condition declined over the study period, coinciding with decreasing water temperatures, and was inversely correlated with the presence of histological lesions. While mortalities occurred in both estuaries, only oysters from the Georges River study site showed gross clinical signs and histological changes characteristic of WM (lesions were prevalent and intralesional microcell-like structures were sometimes noted). PCR testing for Bonamia spp. revealed the presence of an organism belonging to the B. exitiosa-B. roughleyi clade in some samples; however, the very low prevalence of this organism relative to histological changes and the lack of reactivity of affected oysters in subsequent in situ hybridisation experiments led us to conclude that this Bonamia sp. is not responsible for WM. Another aetiological agent and a confluence of environmental factors are a more likely explanation for the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe B Spiers
- NSW Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, New South Wales 2568, Australia
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Carnegie RB, Hill KM, Stokes NA, Burreson EM. The haplosporidian Bonamia exitiosa is present in Australia, but the identity of the parasite described as Bonamia (formerly Mikrocytos) roughleyi is uncertain. J Invertebr Pathol 2013; 115:33-40. [PMID: 24211185 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2013.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protistan oyster parasites in the genus Bonamia have been observed in recent years infecting new hosts on five continents, with most of these parasites genetically similar to austral species Bonamia exitiosa and Bonamia roughleyi. Identification of the newly observed parasites as one or another of these described species has been complicated by the fact that B. exitiosa and B. roughleyi are phylogenetically indistinguishable at the small-subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU rDNA) level, with samples of B. roughleyi type material no longer available for genetic re-analyses using more informative internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region DNA sequences. To resolve this issue, we evaluated B. roughleyi in field collections of hosts Saccostrea glomerata and Ostrea angasi (as well as Crassostrea gigas) in New South Wales, Australia in 2006 and 2007, and re-analyzed histological samples from the original description of this parasite species using in situ hybridization. Despite (1) reports of the oyster disease putatively caused by B. roughleyi during the time of collections, (2) the observation of gross lesions characteristic of the disease, and (3) the observation of B. roughleyi cells in association with the lesions, we detected a Bonamia sp. by PCR in just 1/42 O. angasi (2.4%), and 1/608 S. glomerata (0.2%), the latter oyster of which is the type host. SSU rDNA sequences of the amplicons were nearly identical to those of B. exitiosa and B. roughleyi, and phylogenetic analysis of ITS region sequences placed them on a B. exitiosa clade. A Haplosporidium sp. sequence similar to that of H. costale was PCR-amplified from nearly half the S. glomerata and O. angasi, but no Haplosporidium sp. was observed histologically. Our inability to identify a Bonamia sp. sequence in association with the B. roughleyi observed histologically suggests that this parasite is not a Bonamia sp. at all, and should be regarded as B. roughleyi nomen dubium. We conclude that the Bonamia sp. that we and other investigators detected in southeastern Australian S. glomerata and O. angasi was B. exitiosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - Kristina M Hill
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
| | - Nancy A Stokes
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
| | - Eugene M Burreson
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
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Stentiford GD, Bateman KS, Stokes NA, Carnegie RB. Haplosporidium littoralis sp. nov.: a crustacean pathogen within the Haplosporida (Cercozoa, Ascetosporea). Dis Aquat Organ 2013; 105:243-252. [PMID: 23999708 DOI: 10.3354/dao02619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Previously, we described the pathology and ultrastructure of an apparently asporous haplosporidian-like parasite infecting the common shore crab Carcinus maenas from the European shoreline. In the current study, extraction of genomic DNA from the haemolymph, gill or hepatopancreas of infected C. maenas was carried out and the small subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU rDNA) of the pathogen was amplified by PCR before cloning and sequencing. All 4 crabs yielded an identical 1736 bp parasite sequence. BLAST analysis against the NCBI GenBank database identified the sequence as most similar to the protistan pathogen group comprising the order Haplosporida within the class Ascetosporea of the phylum Cercozoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998. Parsimony analysis placed the crab pathogen within the genus Haplosporidium, sister to the molluscan parasites H. montforti, H. pickfordi and H. lusitanicum. The parasite infecting C. maenas is hereby named as Haplosporidium littoralis sp. nov. The presence of a haplosporidian parasite infecting decapod crustaceans from the European shoreline with close phylogenetic affinity to previously described haplosporidians infecting molluscs is intriguing. The study provides important phylogenetic data for this relatively understudied, but commercially significant, pathogen group.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Stentiford
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Crustacean Diseases, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Weymouth laboratory, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
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Dungan CF, Carnegie RB, Hill KM, McCollough CB, Laramore SE, Kelly CJ, Stokes NA, Scarpa J. Diseases of oysters Crassostrea ariakensis and C. virginica reared in ambient waters from the Choptank River, Maryland and the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Dis Aquat Organ 2012; 101:173-183. [PMID: 23324414 DOI: 10.3354/dao02531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
To assess potential benefits and liabilities from a proposed introduction of Asian Suminoe oysters, susceptibilities of exotic Crassostrea ariakensis and native C. virginica oysters were compared during exposures to pathogens endemic in temperate, mesohaline waters of Chesapeake Bay and sub-tropical, polyhaline Atlantic waters of southern Florida, USA. Cohorts of diploid, sibling oysters of both species were periodically tested for diseases while reared in mesocosms receiving ambient waters from the Choptank River, Maryland (>3 yr) or the Indian River Lagoon, Florida (10 to 11 mo). Haplosporidium sp. infections (e.g. MSX disease) were not detected in oysters from either site. Perkinsus sp. infections (dermo disease) occurred among members of both oyster species at both sites, but infections were generally of low or moderate intensities. A Bonamia sp. was detected by PCR of DNAs from tissues of both oyster species following exposure to Florida waters, with maximum PCR prevalences of 44 and 15% among C. ariakensis and C. virginica oysters respectively during June 2007. Among C. ariakensis oysters sampled during April to July 2007, a Bonamia sp. was detected in 31% of oysters by PCR (range 11 to 35%) and confirmed histologically in 10% (range 0 to 15%). Among simultaneously sampled C. virginica oysters, a Bonamia sp. was detected in 7% by PCR (range 0 to 15%), but histological lesions were absent. Although this is the first report of a Bonamia sp. from Florida waters, sequences of small subunit (SSU) rDNA and in situ hybridization (ISH) assays both identified the Florida pathogen as Bonamia exitiosa, which also infects oysters in the proximate waters of North Carolina, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher F Dungan
- Cooperative Oxford Laboratory, Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Oxford, Maryland 21654, USA.
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Cáceres-Martínez J, Ortega MG, Vásquez-Yeomans R, García TDJP, Stokes NA, Carnegie RB. Natural and cultured populations of the mangrove oyster Saccostrea palmula from Sinaloa, Mexico, infected by Perkinsus marinus. J Invertebr Pathol 2012; 110:321-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2012.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Ford SE, Stokes NA, Burreson EM, Scarpa E, Carnegie RB, Kraeuter JN, Bushek D. Minchinia mercenariae n. sp. (Haplosporidia) in the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria: implications of a rare parasite in a commercially important host. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2010; 56:542-51. [PMID: 19883442 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2009.00432.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
During routine histopathology of 180 juvenile hard clams, Mercenaria mercenaria, from a site in Virginia, USA, in 2007, we discovered a single individual heavily infected with a parasite resembling a haplosporidian, some members of which cause lethal bivalve diseases. Scanning electron microscopy of spores and sequencing of small subunit ribosomal DNA confirmed a new species: Minchinia mercenariae n. sp. Further sampling of clams at the site found prevalences up to 38% using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). No parasites were found in routine histological screening of the same individuals, but re-examination of clams judged positive by in situ hybridization (ISH) revealed very faintly staining plasmodia. No unusual mortalities have occurred among the sampled groups. Analysis of clams from Massachusetts to Florida by PCR failed to detect the parasite, but a haplosporidian found in a clam from New Jersey in 2001 was subsequently identified by ISH as M. mercenariae. No other haplosporidians have been reported in thousands of hard clams from the US east coast examined histologically since the mid-1980s. The discovery underscores critical questions about how to assess the risks associated with parasites in groups known to be lethal, but that themselves are not considered a problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan E Ford
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, New Jersey 08349, USA.
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Hine PM, Carnegie RB, Burreson EM, Engelsma MY. Inter-relationships of haplosporidians deduced from ultrastructural studies. Dis Aquat Organ 2009; 83:247-256. [PMID: 19402456 DOI: 10.3354/dao02016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We reviewed papers reporting haplosporidian ultrastructure to compare inter-relationships based on ultrastructure with those based on molecular data, to identify features that may be important in haplosporidian taxonomy, and to consider parasite taxonomy in relation to host taxonomy. There were links between the following: (1) the plasmodia of an abalone parasite, Haplosporidium nelsoni and Urosporidium crescens in the release of haplosporosomes; (2) H. costale and H. armoricanum in haplosporosome shape and presence and shape of Golgi in spores; (3) basal asporous crustacean haplosporidians which form haplosporosomes from formative bodies (FBs) in vegetative stages--H. nelsoni, which forms haplosporosomes from FBs in plasmodial cytoplasm, and H. louisiana, Minchinia spp. and Bonamia perspora, which form haplosporosomes from FBs in spores; (4) crustacean haplosporidians, Bonamia spp. and M. occulta in the predominance of uni- and binucleate stages; and (5) lipid-like vesicles in sporoplasms of H. costale, H. armoricanum, H. lusitanicum, H. pickfordi, H. montforti, and B. perspora. In general, these relationships reflect phylogenies based on molecular studies. As well as spore form and ornamentation, haplosporogenesis in spores appears to be taxonomically important. Parasite and host taxonomy were linked in the infection of lower invertebrates by Urosporidium spp., the infection of oysters by Bonamia spp., and of molluscs by Minchinia spp. Haplosporidium spp. are patently an artificial, paraphyletic group probably comprising many taxa. Consequently, the taxonomy of haplosporidians needs a thorough revision.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Hine
- Investigation and Diagnostic Centre, Biosecurity New Zealand, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, P.O. Box 40-742, Upper Hutt 6007, New Zealand.
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Robalino J, Carnegie RB, O'Leary N, Ouvry-Patat SA, de la Vega E, Prior S, Gross PS, Browdy CL, Chapman RW, Schey KL, Warr G. Contributions of functional genomics and proteomics to the study of immune responses in the Pacific white leg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2008; 128:110-8. [PMID: 19070907 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2008.10.329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The need for better control of infectious diseases in shrimp aquaculture and the ecological importance of crustacea in marine ecosystems have prompted interest in the study of crustacean immune systems, particularly those of shrimp. As shrimp and other crustacea are poorly understood from the immunological point of view, functional genomic and proteomic approaches have been applied as a means of quickly obtaining molecular information regarding immune responses in these organisms. In this article, a series of results derived from transcriptomic and proteomic studies in shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) are discussed. Expressed Sequence Tag analysis, differential expression cloning through Suppression Subtractive Hybridization, expression profiling using microarrays, and proteomic studies using mass spectrometry, have provided a wealth of useful data and opportunities for new avenues of research. Examples of new research directions arising from these studies in shrimp include the molecular diversity of antimicrobial effectors, the role of double stranded RNA as an inducer of antiviral immunity, and the possible overlap between antibacterial and antiviral responses in the shrimp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Robalino
- Marine Biomedicine and Environmental Sciences Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Hollings Marine Laboratory, United States
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Audemard C, Carnegie RB, Burreson EM. Shellfish tissues evaluated for Perkinsus spp. using the Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium culture assay can be used for downstream molecular assays. Dis Aquat Organ 2008; 80:235-239. [PMID: 18814549 DOI: 10.3354/dao01944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM) culture assay is the standard, recommended method for surveillance of Perkinsus spp. infections in marine molluscs. In this assay, shellfish tissues are incubated in RFTM, stained with Lugol's iodine solution to render Perkinsus spp. cells blue-black, and evaluated microscopically to rate infection intensities. A limitation of this assay, however, is the lack of pathogen species specificity. Generally, identification of Perkinsus spp. requires DNA sequence analysis of parallel or additional samples since the exposure to iodine is believed to hamper DNA amplification from samples processed by the RFTM assay. However, we show that P. marinus DNA can be successfully amplified by PCR from Crassostrea virginica tissues cultured in RFTM and stained with Lugol's iodine. The beneficial consequence is that, where necessary, DNA sequence data may be obtained from RFTM-cultured tissues, allowing the identification of the Perkinsus sp. responsible for an observed infection. This would obviate further sampling, representing gain of time and reduction in cost, where a Perkinsus sp. is unexpectedly observed in new host(s) or location(s) but where parallel samples are not available for molecular diagnostics. Laboratories without molecular diagnostic tools for Perkinsus spp. may fix presumptive Perkinsus sp.-positive culture material in 95% ethanol for transport to, and subsequent analysis by, a laboratory that does have this capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Audemard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Route 1208, Greate Road, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA.
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Carnegie RB, Stokes NA, Audemard C, Bishop MJ, Wilbur AE, Alphin TD, Posey MH, Peterson CH, Burreson EM. Strong seasonality of Bonamia sp. infection and induced Crassostrea ariakensis mortality in Bogue and Masonboro Sounds, North Carolina, USA. J Invertebr Pathol 2008; 98:335-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2008.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2007] [Revised: 03/05/2008] [Accepted: 03/14/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Audemard C, Carnegie RB, Bishop MJ, Peterson CH, Burreson EM. Interacting effects of temperature and salinity on Bonamia sp. parasitism in the Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis. J Invertebr Pathol 2008; 98:344-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2008.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2007] [Revised: 03/05/2008] [Accepted: 03/14/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Carnegie RB, Burreson EM, Hine PM, Stokes NA, Audemard C, Bishop MJ, Peterson CH. Bonamia perspora n. sp. (Haplosporidia), a Parasite of the Oyster Ostreola equestris, is the First Bonamia Species Known to Produce Spores. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2006; 53:232-45. [PMID: 16872291 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2006.00100.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Examination of the oyster Ostreola equestris as a potential reservoir host for a species of Bonamia discovered in Crassostrea ariakensis in North Carolina (NC), USA, revealed a second novel Bonamia sp. Histopathology, electron microscopy, and molecular phylogenetic analysis support the designation of a new parasite species, Bonamia perspora n. sp., which is the first Bonamia species shown to produce a typical haplosporidian spore with an orifice and hinged operculum. Spores were confirmed to be from B. perspora by fluorescent in situ hybridization. Bonamia perspora was found at Morehead City and Wilmington, NC, with an overall prevalence of 1.4% (31/2,144). Uninucleate, plasmodial, and sporogonic stages occurred almost exclusively in connective tissues; uninucleate stages (2-6 microm) were rarely observed in hemocytes. Spores were 4.3-6.4 microm in length. Ultrastructurally, uninucleate, diplokaryotic, and plasmodial stages resembled those of other spore-forming haplosporidians, but few haplosporosomes were present, and plasmodia were small. Spore ornamentation consisted of spore wall-derived, thin, flat ribbons that emerged haphazardly around the spore, and which terminated in what appeared to be four-pronged caps. Number of ribbons per spore ranged from 15 to 30, and their length ranged from 1.0 to 3.4 microm. Parsimony analysis identified B. perspora as a sister species to Bonamia ostreae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA.
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Azevedo C, Balseiro P, Casal G, Gestal C, Aranguren R, Stokes NA, Carnegie RB, Novoa B, Burreson EM, Figueras A. Ultrastructural and molecular characterization of Haplosporidium montforti n. sp., parasite of the European abalone Haliotis tuberculata. J Invertebr Pathol 2006; 92:23-32. [PMID: 16563428 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2006.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2005] [Revised: 02/06/2006] [Accepted: 02/09/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A new member of the parasitic phylum Haplosporidia, which was found infecting the connective tissue, gill, digestive gland, and foot muscle of Haliotis tuberculata imported from Ireland and experimentally grown in Galicia (NW Spain), is described. Scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and molecular characterization of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene were carried out to confirm the description of this species. The ultrastructural morphology of the spores and their surrounding ornaments attached to the spore wall was described from light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy observations. Systemic infection with uninucleated and multinucleated plasmodia containing spherical nuclei was observed among several sporocysts containing the different spore maturation stages. The spores were spherical to slightly ellipsoidal (2.42 +/- 0.5 x 2.31 +/- 0.6 microm). The apical zone of the spore wall was modified into a complex opercular system covering a circular orifice that measured about 0.5 microm in diameter. The operculum was connected to the spore wall by a hinge. The spore wall was about 110 nm thick, with 4 filaments (20-28 microm long). The filaments were composed of the same material that formed the wall. The cross-sections through the base of these filaments showed T-like and X-like sections. Internally, the uninucleated endosporoplasm contained typical haplosporidian structures, such as, haplosporosomes, a spherulosome, and mitochondria with vesicular cristae. The SSU rRNA gene sequence was different from previously reported haplosporidian SSU rRNA gene sequences, corroborating morphological data that this was an undescribed species. Based on differences from previously described haplosporidians in ultrastructural characteristics of the spore and SSU rRNA gene sequence, we describe the abalone haplosporidian as Haplosporidium montforti n. sp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Azevedo
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBAS/UP) and Laboratory of Protoparasitology, CIIMAR/UP, University of Porto, Portugal.
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Hare MP, Allen SK, Bloomer P, Camara MD, Carnegie RB, Murfree J, Luckenbach M, Meritt D, Morrison C, Paynter K, Reece KS, Rose CG. A genetic test for recruitment enhancement in Chesapeake Bay oysters, Crassostrea virginica, after population supplementation with a disease tolerant strain. CONSERV GENET 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-005-9108-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
The role of vertebrate histone proteins or histone derived peptides as innate immune effectors has only recently been appreciated. In this study, high levels of core histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 were found in hemocytes from the Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. The proteins were identified by in-gel digestion, mass spectrometry analysis, and homology searching. The L. vannamei histone proteins were found to be highly homologous to histones of other species. Based on this homology, histone H2A was cloned and its N-terminus was found to resemble the known antimicrobial histone peptides buforin I, parasin, and hipposin. Consequently, a 38 amino acid synthetic peptide identical to the N-terminus of shrimp H2A was synthesized and assayed, along with endogenous histones H2A, H2B, and H4, for growth inhibition against Micrococcus luteus. Histone H2A, purified to homogeneity, completely inhibited growth of the Gram-positive bacterium at 4.5 microm while a mixture of histones H2B and H4 was active at 3 microm. In addition, a fraction containing a fragment of histone H1 was also found to be active. The synthetic peptide similar to buforin was active at submicromolar concentrations. These data indicate, for the first time, that shrimp hemocyte histone proteins possess antimicrobial activity and represent a defense mechanism previously unreported in an invertebrate. Histones may be a component of innate immunity more widely conserved, and of earlier origin, than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Séverine A Patat
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Meyer GR, Bower SM, Carnegie RB. Sensitivity of a digoxigenin-labelled DNA probe in detecting Mikrocytos mackini, causative agent of Denman Island disease (mikrocytosis), in oysters. J Invertebr Pathol 2005; 88:89-94. [PMID: 15766924 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2004.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2004] [Revised: 10/26/2004] [Accepted: 11/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The protistan parasite Mikrocytos mackini, causative agent of Denman Island disease (mikrocytosis), induces mortality and reduces marketability in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in British Columbia, Canada. This parasite is a pathogen of international concern because it infects a range of oyster species, and because its life cycle and mode of transmission are unknown. A digoxigenin-labelled DNA probe in situ hybridisation technique (DIG-ISH) was developed, and its detection sensitivity was compared to standard histological sections stained with haematoxylin and eosin stain (H&E-histo). In H&E-histo preparations, the detection of M. mackini was certain only when the parasite occurred within the vesicular connective tissue of adult oysters. However, the DIG-ISH technique clearly demonstrated the presence of infection in all other host tissues as well as in juvenile oysters with poorly developed vesicular connective tissue. The probe hybridised strongly to M. mackini, did not hybridise to oyster tissues or with the other shellfish parasites tested, and was more sensitive for detecting infections when compared to H&E-histo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary R Meyer
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Science Branch, Pacific Biological Station, British Columbia, Canada V9T 6N7
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Bower SM, Carnegie RB, Goh B, Jones SR, Lowe GJ, Mak MW. Preferential PCR amplification of parasitic protistan small subunit rDNA from metazoan tissues. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2005; 51:325-32. [PMID: 15218702 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2004.tb00574.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A "universal non-metazoan" polymerase chain reaction (UNonMet-PCR) that selectively amplifies a segment of nonmetazoan Small Subunit (SSU) rDNA gene was validated. The primers used were: 18S-EUK581-F (5'-GTGCCAGCAGCCGCG-3') and 18S-EUK1134-R (5'-TTTAAGTTTCAGCCTTGCG-3') with specificity provided by the 19-base reverse primer. Its target site is highly conserved across the Archaea, Bacteria, and eukaryotes (including fungi), but not most Metazoa (except Porifera, Ctenophora, and Myxozoa) which have mismatches at bases 14 and 19 resulting in poor or failed amplification. During validation, UNonMet-PCR amplified SSU rDNA gene fragments from all assayed protists (n = 16 from 7 higher taxa, including two species of marine phytoplankton) and Fungi (n = 3) but amplified very poorly or not at all most assayed Metazoa (n = 13 from 8 higher taxa). When a nonmetazoan parasite was present in a metazoan host, the parasite DNA was preferentially amplified. For example, DNA from the parasite Trypanosoma danilewskyi was preferentially amplified in mixtures containing up to 1,000 x more goldfish Carassius auratus (host) DNA. Also, the weak amplification of uninfected host (Chionoecetes tanneri) SSU rDNA did not occur in the presence of a natural infection with a parasite (Hematodinium sp.). Only Hematodinium sp. SSU rDNA was amplified in samples from infected C. tanneri. This UNonMet-PCR is a powerful tool for amplifying SSU rDNA from non-metazoan pathogens or symbionts that have not been isolated from metazoan hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Bower
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Rd., Nanaimo, British Columbia V9T 6N7, Canada.
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Reece KS, Ribeiro WL, Gaffney PM, Carnegie RB, Allen SK. Microsatellite marker development and analysis in the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica): confirmation of null alleles and non-Mendelian segregation ratios. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 95:346-52. [PMID: 15247315 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esh058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Eighteen microsatellite markers were developed for the Crassostrea virginica nuclear genome, including di-, tri-, and tetranucleotide microsatellite repeat regions that included perfect, imperfect, and compound repeat sequences. A reference panel with DNA from the parents and four progeny of 10 full-sib families was used for a preliminary confirmation of polymorphism at these loci and indications of null alleles. Null alleles were discovered at three loci; in two instances, primer redesign enabled their amplification. Two to five representative alleles from each locus were sequenced to ensure that the targeted loci were amplifying. The sequence analysis revealed not only variation in the number of simple sequence repeat units, but also polymorphisms in the microsatellite flanking regions. A total of 3626 bp of combined microsatellite flanking region from the 18 loci was examined, revealing indels as well as nucleotide site substitutions. Overall, 16 indels and 146 substitutions were found with an average of 4.5% polymorphism across all loci. Eight markers were tested on the parents and 39-61 progeny from each of four families for examination of allelic inheritance patterns and genotypic ratios. Twenty-six tests of segregation ratios revealed eight significant departures from expected Mendelian ratios, three of which remained significant after correction for multiple tests. Deviations were observed in both the directions of heterozygote excess and deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Reece
- Aquaculture Genetics and Breeding Technology Center, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
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Carnegie RB, Barber BJ, Distel DL. Detection of the oyster parasite Bonamia ostreae by fluorescent in situ hybridization. Dis Aquat Organ 2003; 55:247-252. [PMID: 13677511 DOI: 10.3354/dao055247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Bonamia ostreae is an economically significant protistan parasite of the flat oyster Ostrea edulis in Europe and North America. Management of this parasite depends partly upon its reliable identification in wild and aquacultured oyster populations, but B. ostreae is small and difficult to detect by traditional microscopic methods. We designed a fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) assay to sensitively detect B. ostreae in standard histopathological sections of B. ostreae-infected oysters using fluorescently labeled DNA oligonucleotide probes. Hybridization using a cocktail of 3 presumptively B. ostreae-specific, fluorescein iso(thio)cyanate (FITC)-labeled oligonucleotides produced an unambiguous staining pattern of small green rings inside infected oyster hemocytes that was easily distinguished from host tissue background. This pattern is diagnostic for B. ostreae. A negative control cocktail of oligonucleotides containing 2 mismatches relative to target sequences, on the other hand, failed to hybridize at all. B. ostreae-specific probes did not cross-react with a related protist, Haplosporidium nelsoni.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Carnegie
- School of Marine Sciences, 5735 Hitchner Hall, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469-5735, USA.
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Carnegie RB, Meyer GR, Blackbourn J, Cochennec-Laureau N, Berthe FCJ, Bower SM. Molecular detection of the oyster parasite Mikrocytos mackini, and a preliminary phylogenetic analysis. Dis Aquat Organ 2003; 54:219-227. [PMID: 12803386 DOI: 10.3354/dao054219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The protistan parasite Mikrocytos mackini, the causative agent of Denman Island disease in the oyster Crassostrea gigas in British Columbia, Canada, is of wide concern because it can infect other oyster species and because its life cycle, mode of transmission, and origins are unknown. PCR and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) assays were developed for M. mackini, the PCR assay was validated against standard histopathological diagnosis, and a preliminary phylogenetic analysis of the M. mackini small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene (SSU rDNA) was undertaken. A PCR designed specifically not to amplify host DNA generated a 544 bp SSU rDNA fragment from M. mackini-infected oysters and enriched M. mackini cell isolates, but not from uninfected control oysters. This fragment was confirmed by FISH to be M. mackini SSU rDNA. A M. mackini-specific PCR was then designed which detected 3 to 4x more M. mackini infections in 1056 wild oysters from Denman Island, British Columbia, than standard histopathology. Mikrocytos mackini prevalence estimates based on both PCR and histopathology increased (PCR from 4.4 to 7.4%, histopathology from 1.2 to 2.1%) when gross lesions were processed in addition to standard samples (i.e. transverse sections for histopathology, left outer palp DNA for PCR). The use of histopathology and tissue imprints plus PCR, and standard samples plus observed gross lesions, represented a 'total evidence' approach that provided the most realistic estimates of the true prevalence of M. mackini. Maximum parsimony and evolutionary distance phylogenetic analyses suggested that M. mackini may be a basal eukaryote, although it is not closely related to other known protistan taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Carnegie
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Science Branch, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9T 6N7, Canada.
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Carnegie RB, Barber BJ, Culloty SC, Figueras AJ, Distel DL. Development of a PCR assay for detection of the oyster pathogen Bonamia ostreae and support for its inclusion in the Haplosporidia. Dis Aquat Organ 2000; 42:199-206. [PMID: 11104071 DOI: 10.3354/dao042199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The development of diagnostic assays more sensitive and specific than traditional histological techniques is important for the management of bonamiasis in flat oysters Ostrea edulis. A specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol was developed for the detection of very small amounts of Bonamia ostreae (Pichot et al. 1980) ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in bulk DNA from oyster gill and hemolymph. The presence of a 760 bp PCR amplification product corresponded with B. ostreae infections determined cytologically in 185 oysters from Ireland, Spain, and the USA. All (100%) 'heavily' and 'moderately' infected oysters, 86.7 % of the 'lightly' infected oysters, and 66.7 % of the 'scarcely' infected oysters were confirmed to be infected using the PCR. In addition, 37.9% of the oysters in which B. ostreae was not detected using cytology were positive using the PCR. Sampling error and the subjectivity of cytological diagnoses are the likely sources of disagreement between diagnostic methods in oysters with very light infections. The PCR assay developed here is more sensitive and less ambiguous than standard histological and cytological techniques. Phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data confirmed B. ostreae to be a member of the Haplosporidia.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Carnegie
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono 04469, USA.
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