1
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Roohollahi K, de Jong Y, van Mil SE, Fabius AW, Moll AC, Dorsman JC. High-Level MYCN-Amplified RB1-Proficient Retinoblastoma Tumors Retain Distinct Molecular Signatures. Ophthalmology Science 2022; 2:100188. [PMID: 36245757 PMCID: PMC9559112 DOI: 10.1016/j.xops.2022.100188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yvonne de Jong
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: Yvonne de Jong, PhD, Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC, Location VUMC, De Boelelaan 1117, 1118, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Saskia E. van Mil
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Annette C. Moll
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Josephine C. Dorsman
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Josephine C. Dorsman, PhD, Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC, Location VUMC, De Boelelaan 1117, 1118, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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2
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Glykofridis IE, Knol JC, Balk JA, Westland D, Pham TV, Piersma SR, Lougheed SM, Derakhshan S, Veen P, Rooimans MA, van Mil SE, Böttger F, Poddighe PJ, van de Beek I, Drost J, Zwartkruis FJ, de Menezes RX, Meijers-Heijboer HE, Houweling AC, Jimenez CR, Wolthuis RM. Loss of FLCN-FNIP1/2 induces a non-canonical interferon response in human renal tubular epithelial cells. eLife 2021; 10:61630. [PMID: 33459596 PMCID: PMC7899648 DOI: 10.7554/elife.61630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Germline mutations in the Folliculin (FLCN) tumor suppressor gene cause Birt–Hogg–Dubé (BHD) syndrome, a rare autosomal dominant disorder predisposing carriers to kidney tumors. FLCN is a conserved, essential gene linked to diverse cellular processes but the mechanism by which FLCN prevents kidney cancer remains unknown. Here, we show that disrupting FLCN in human renal tubular epithelial cells (RPTEC/TERT1) activates TFE3, upregulating expression of its E-box targets, including RRAGD and GPNMB, without modifying mTORC1 activity. Surprisingly, the absence of FLCN or its binding partners FNIP1/FNIP2 induces interferon response genes independently of interferon. Mechanistically, FLCN loss promotes STAT2 recruitment to chromatin and slows cellular proliferation. Our integrated analysis identifies STAT1/2 signaling as a novel target of FLCN in renal cells and BHD tumors. STAT1/2 activation appears to counterbalance TFE3-directed hyper-proliferation and may influence immune responses. These findings shed light on unique roles of FLCN in human renal tumorigenesis and pinpoint candidate prognostic biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris E Glykofridis
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jaco C Knol
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jesper A Balk
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Denise Westland
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Center for Molecular Medicine, Molecular Cancer Research, Universiteitsweg, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Thang V Pham
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sander R Piersma
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sinéad M Lougheed
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sepide Derakhshan
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Oncode Institute, Heidelberglaan, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Puck Veen
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Martin A Rooimans
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Saskia E van Mil
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Franziska Böttger
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Pino J Poddighe
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Irma van de Beek
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jarno Drost
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Oncode Institute, Heidelberglaan, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Fried Jt Zwartkruis
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Center for Molecular Medicine, Molecular Cancer Research, Universiteitsweg, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | - Hanne Ej Meijers-Heijboer
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Arjan C Houweling
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Connie R Jimenez
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Rob Mf Wolthuis
- Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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3
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van de Vrugt HJ, Harmsen T, Riepsaame J, Alexantya G, van Mil SE, de Vries Y, Bin Ali R, Huijbers IJ, Dorsman JC, Wolthuis RMF, Te Riele H. Effective CRISPR/Cas9-mediated correction of a Fanconi anemia defect by error-prone end joining or templated repair. Sci Rep 2019; 9:768. [PMID: 30683899 PMCID: PMC6347620 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36506-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a cancer predisposition syndrome characterized by congenital abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and hypersensitivity to aldehydes and crosslinking agents. For FA patients, gene editing holds promise for therapeutic applications aimed at functionally restoring mutated genes in hematopoietic stem cells. However, intrinsic FA DNA repair defects may obstruct gene editing feasibility. Here, we report on the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated correction of a disruptive mutation in Fancf. Our experiments revealed that gene editing could effectively restore Fancf function via error-prone end joining resulting in a 27% increased survival in the presence of mitomycin C. In addition, templated gene correction could be achieved after double strand or single strand break formation. Although templated gene editing efficiencies were low (≤6%), FA corrected embryonic stem cells acquired a strong proliferative advantage over non-corrected cells, even without imposing genotoxic stress. Notably, Cas9 nickase activity resulted in mono-allelic gene editing and avoidance of undesired mutagenesis. In conclusion: DNA repair defects associated with FANCF deficiency do not prohibit CRISPR/Cas9 gene correction. Our data provide a solid basis for the application of pre-clinical models to further explore the potential of gene editing against FA, with the eventual aim to obtain therapeutic strategies against bone marrow failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri J van de Vrugt
- Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Section of Oncogenetics, Department of Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, De Boelelaan 1118, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Tim Harmsen
- Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joey Riepsaame
- Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Genome Engineering Oxford, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford South Parks Road, OX1 3RE, Oxford, UK
| | - Georgina Alexantya
- Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia E van Mil
- Section of Oncogenetics, Department of Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, De Boelelaan 1118, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yne de Vries
- Section of Oncogenetics, Department of Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, De Boelelaan 1118, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rahmen Bin Ali
- Mouse Clinic for Cancer and Aging research (MCCA) Transgenic Facility, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ivo J Huijbers
- Mouse Clinic for Cancer and Aging research (MCCA) Transgenic Facility, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Josephine C Dorsman
- Section of Oncogenetics, Department of Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, De Boelelaan 1118, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rob M F Wolthuis
- Section of Oncogenetics, Department of Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, De Boelelaan 1118, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hein Te Riele
- Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Section of Oncogenetics, Department of Clinical Genetics, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, De Boelelaan 1118, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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4
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Kooi IE, van Mil SE, MacPherson D, Mol BM, Moll AC, Meijers-Heijboer H, Kaspers GJL, Cloos J, Te Riele H, Dorsman JC. Genomic landscape of retinoblastoma in Rb -/- p130 -/- mice resembles human retinoblastoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2016; 56:231-242. [PMID: 27750399 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.22429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Several murine retinoblastoma models have been generated by deleting the genes encoding for retinoblastoma susceptibility protein pRb and one of its family members p107 or p130. In Rb-/- p107-/- retinoblastomas, somatic copy number alterations (SCNAs) like Mdm2 amplification or Cdkn2a deletion targeting the p53-pathway occur, which is uncommon for human retinoblastoma. In our study, we determined SCNAs in retinoblastomas developing in Rb-/- p130-/- mice and compared this to murine Rb-/- p107-/- tumors and human tumors. Chimeric mice were made by injection of 129/Ola-derived Rb-/- p130-/- embryonic stem cells into wild type C57BL/6 blastocysts. SCNAs of retinoblastoma samples were determined by low-coverage (∼0.5×) whole genome sequencing. In Rb-/- p130-/- tumors, SCNAs included gain of chromosomes 1 (3/23 tumors), 8 (1/23 tumors), 10 (1/23 tumors), 11 (2/23 tumors), and 12 (4/23 tumors), which could be mapped to frequently altered chromosomes in human retinoblastomas. While the altered chromosomes in Rb-/- p130-/- tumors were similar to those in Rb-/- p107-/- tumors, the alteration frequencies were much lower in Rb-/- p130-/- tumors. Most of the Rb-/- p130-/- tumors (16/23 tumors, 70%) were devoid of SCNAs, in strong contrast to Rb-/- p107-/- tumors, which were never (0/15 tumors) SCNA-devoid. Similarly, to human retinoblastoma, increased age at diagnosis significantly correlated with increased SCNA frequencies. Additionally, focal loss of Cdh11 was observed in one Rb-/- p130-/- tumor, which enforces studies in human retinoblastoma that identified CDH11 as a retinoblastoma suppressor. Moreover, based on a comparison of genes altered in human and murine retinoblastoma, we suggest exploring the role of HMGA1 and SRSF3 in retinoblastoma development. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irsan E Kooi
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081BT, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia E van Mil
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081BT, The Netherlands
| | - David MacPherson
- Divisions of Human Biology and Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, 98109
| | - Berber M Mol
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081BT, The Netherlands
| | - Annette C Moll
- Department of Ophthalmology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1007 MB, The Netherlands
| | - Hanne Meijers-Heijboer
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081BT, The Netherlands
| | - Gertjan J L Kaspers
- Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline Cloos
- Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands.,Department of Hematology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Hein Te Riele
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081BT, The Netherlands.,Division of Biological Stress Response, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, 1066 CX, The Netherlands
| | - Josephine C Dorsman
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1081BT, The Netherlands
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5
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Kooi IE, Mol BM, Massink MPG, Ameziane N, Meijers-Heijboer H, Dommering CJ, van Mil SE, de Vries Y, van der Hout AH, Kaspers GJL, Moll AC, Te Riele H, Cloos J, Dorsman JC. Somatic genomic alterations in retinoblastoma beyond RB1 are rare and limited to copy number changes. Sci Rep 2016; 6:25264. [PMID: 27126562 PMCID: PMC4850475 DOI: 10.1038/srep25264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinoblastoma is a rare childhood cancer initiated by RB1 mutation or MYCN amplification, while additional alterations may be required for tumor development. However, the view on single nucleotide variants is very limited. To better understand oncogenesis, we determined the genomic landscape of retinoblastoma. We performed exome sequencing of 71 retinoblastomas and matched blood DNA. Next, we determined the presence of single nucleotide variants, copy number alterations and viruses. Aside from RB1, recurrent gene mutations were very rare. Only a limited fraction of tumors showed BCOR (7/71, 10%) or CREBBP alterations (3/71, 4%). No evidence was found for the presence of viruses. Instead, specific somatic copy number alterations were more common, particularly in patients diagnosed at later age. Recurrent alterations of chromosomal arms often involved less than one copy, also in highly pure tumor samples, suggesting within-tumor heterogeneity. Our results show that retinoblastoma is among the least mutated cancers and signify the extreme sensitivity of the childhood retina for RB1 loss. We hypothesize that retinoblastomas arising later in retinal development benefit more from subclonal secondary alterations and therefore, these alterations are more selected for in these tumors. Targeted therapy based on these subclonal events might be insufficient for complete tumor control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irsan E Kooi
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Berber M Mol
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten P G Massink
- Department of Medical Genetics, Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3508 AB, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Najim Ameziane
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hanne Meijers-Heijboer
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Charlotte J Dommering
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia E van Mil
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yne de Vries
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annemarie H van der Hout
- Department of Genetics, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, 9700 RB, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gertjan J L Kaspers
- Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annette C Moll
- Department of Ophthalmology, VU University Medical Center, de Boelelaan 1117, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hein Te Riele
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Division of Biological Stress Response, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline Cloos
- Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Hematology, VU University Medical Center, de Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Josephine C Dorsman
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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6
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Kooi IE, Mol BM, Moll AC, van der Valk P, de Jong MC, de Graaf P, van Mil SE, Schouten-van Meeteren AY, Meijers-Heijboer H, Kaspers GL, te Riele H, Cloos J, Dorsman JC. Loss of photoreceptorness and gain of genomic alterations in retinoblastoma reveal tumor progression. EBioMedicine 2015; 2:660-70. [PMID: 26288838 PMCID: PMC4534696 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Retinoblastoma is a pediatric eye cancer associated with RB1 loss or MYCN amplification (RB1 (+/+) MYCN(A) ). There are controversies concerning the existence of molecular subtypes within RB1(-/-) retinoblastoma. To test whether these molecular subtypes exist, we performed molecular profiling. METHODS Genome-wide mRNA expression profiling was performed on 76 primary human retinoblastomas. Expression profiling was complemented by genome-wide DNA profiling and clinical, histopathological, and ex vivo drug sensitivity data. FINDINGS RNA and DNA profiling identified major variability between retinoblastomas. While gene expression differences between RB1 (+/+) MYCN(A) and RB1(-/-) tumors seemed more dichotomous, differences within the RB1(-/-) tumors were gradual. Tumors with high expression of a photoreceptor gene signature were highly differentiated, smaller in volume and diagnosed at younger age compared with tumors with low photoreceptor signature expression. Tumors with lower photoreceptor expression showed increased expression of genes involved in M-phase and mRNA and ribosome synthesis and increased frequencies of somatic copy number alterations. INTERPRETATION Molecular, clinical and histopathological differences between RB1(-/-) tumors are best explained by tumor progression, reflected by a gradual loss of differentiation and photoreceptor expression signature. Since copy number alterations were more frequent in tumors with less photoreceptorness, genomic alterations might be drivers of tumor progression. RESEARCH IN CONTEXT Retinoblastoma is an ocular childhood cancer commonly caused by mutations in the RB1 gene. In order to determine optimal treatment, tumor subtyping is considered critically important. However, except for very rare retinoblastomas without an RB1 mutation, there are controversies as to whether subtypes of retinoblastoma do exist. Our study shows that retinoblastomas are highly diverse but rather than reflecting distinct tumor types with a different etiology, our data suggests that this diversity is a result of tumor progression driven by cumulative genetic alterations. Therefore, retinoblastomas should not be categorized in distinct subtypes, but be described according to their stage of progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irsan E. Kooi
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Room J-376, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 108 1BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Berber M. Mol
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Room J-376, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 108 1BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annette C. Moll
- Department of Ophthalmology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul van der Valk
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, 3E47, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marcus C. de Jong
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, VU University Medical Center, 4 F005, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pim de Graaf
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, VU University Medical Center, 4 F005, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia E. van Mil
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Room J-376, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 108 1BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Hanne Meijers-Heijboer
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Room J-376, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 108 1BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gertjan L. Kaspers
- Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, VU University Medical Center, 9D28, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hein te Riele
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Room J-376, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 108 1BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Division of Biological Stress Response, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline Cloos
- Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, VU University Medical Center, 9D28, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Hematology, VU University Medical Center, CCA 3.26, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Josephine C. Dorsman
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Room J-376, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 108 1BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Corresponding author at: J-376, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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7
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Stoepker C, Ameziane N, van der Lelij P, Kooi IE, Oostra AB, Rooimans MA, van Mil SE, Brink A, Dietrich R, Balk JA, Ylstra B, Joenje H, Feller SM, Brakenhoff RH. Defects in the Fanconi Anemia Pathway and Chromatid Cohesion in Head and Neck Cancer. Cancer Res 2015; 75:3543-53. [PMID: 26122845 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-15-0528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Failure to repair DNA damage or defective sister chromatid cohesion, a process essential for correct chromosome segregation, can be causative of chromosomal instability (CIN), which is a hallmark of many types of cancers. We investigated how frequent this occurs in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) and whether specific mechanisms or genes could be linked to these phenotypes. The genomic instability syndrome Fanconi anemia is caused by mutations in any of at least 16 genes regulating DNA interstrand crosslink (ICL) repair. Since patients with Fanconi anemia have a high risk to develop HNSCC, we investigated whether and to which extent Fanconi anemia pathway inactivation underlies CIN in HNSCC of non-Fanconi anemia individuals. We observed ICL-induced chromosomal breakage in 9 of 17 (53%) HNSCC cell lines derived from patients without Fanconi anemia. In addition, defective sister chromatid cohesion was observed in five HNSCC cell lines. Inactivation of FANCM was responsible for chromosomal breakage in one cell line, whereas in two other cell lines, somatic mutations in PDS5A or STAG2 resulted in inadequate sister chromatid cohesion. In addition, FANCF methylation was found in one cell line by screening an additional panel of 39 HNSCC cell lines. Our data demonstrate that CIN in terms of ICL-induced chromosomal breakage and defective chromatid cohesion is frequently observed in HNSCC. Inactivation of known Fanconi anemia and chromatid cohesion genes does explain CIN in the minority of cases. These findings point to phenotypes that may be highly relevant in treatment response of HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Stoepker
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Najim Ameziane
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Petra van der Lelij
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Irsan E Kooi
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anneke B Oostra
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Martin A Rooimans
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Saskia E van Mil
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Arjen Brink
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ralf Dietrich
- German Fanconi Anemia Support Group and Research Fund, Unna-Siddinghausen, Germany
| | - Jesper A Balk
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Bauke Ylstra
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hans Joenje
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Stephan M Feller
- Biological Systems Architecture Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ruud H Brakenhoff
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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8
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Massink MPG, Kooi IE, van Mil SE, Jordanova ES, Ameziane N, Dorsman JC, van Beek DM, van der Voorn JP, Sie D, Ylstra B, van Deurzen CHM, Martens JW, Smid M, Sieuwerts AM, de Weerd V, Foekens JA, van den Ouweland AMW, van Dyk E, Nederlof PM, Waisfisz Q, Meijers-Heijboer H. Proper genomic profiling of (BRCA1-mutated) basal-like breast carcinomas requires prior removal of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes. Mol Oncol 2015; 9:877-88. [PMID: 25616998 PMCID: PMC5528776 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2014.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Revised: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION BRCA1-mutated breast carcinomas may have distinct biological features, suggesting the involvement of specific oncogenic pathways in tumor development. The identification of genomic aberrations characteristic for BRCA1-mutated breast carcinomas could lead to a better understanding of BRCA1-associated oncogenic events and could prove valuable in clinical testing for BRCA1-involvement in patients. METHODS For this purpose, genomic and gene expression profiles of basal-like BRCA1-mutated breast tumors (n = 27) were compared with basal-like familial BRCAX (non-BRCA1/2/CHEK2*1100delC) tumors (n = 14) in a familial cohort of 120 breast carcinomas. RESULTS Genome wide copy number profiles of the BRCA1-mutated breast carcinomas in our data appeared heterogeneous. Gene expression analyses identified varying amounts of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) as a major cause for this heterogeneity. Indeed, selecting tumors with relative low amounts of TILs, resulted in the identification of three known but also five previously unrecognized BRCA1-associated copy number aberrations. Moreover, these aberrations occurred with high frequencies in the BRCA1-mutated tumor samples. Using these regions it was possible to discriminate BRCA1-mutated from BRCAX breast carcinomas, and they were validated in two independent cohorts. To further substantiate our findings, we used flow cytometry to isolate cancer cells from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded, BRCA1-mutated triple negative breast carcinomas with estimated TIL percentages of 40% and higher. Genomic profiles of sorted and unsorted fractions were compared by shallow whole genome sequencing and confirm our findings. CONCLUSION This study shows that genomic profiling of in particular basal-like, and thus BRCA1-mutated, breast carcinomas is severely affected by the presence of high numbers of TILs. Previous reports on genomic profiling of BRCA1-mutated breast carcinomas have largely neglected this. Therefore, our findings have direct consequences on the interpretation of published genomic data. Also, these findings could prove valuable in light of currently used genomic tools for assessing BRCA1-involvement in breast cancer patients and pathogenicity assessment of BRCA1 variants of unknown significance. The BRCA1-associated genomic aberrations identified in this study provide possible leads to a better understanding of BRCA1-associated oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten P G Massink
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Irsan E Kooi
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Saskia E van Mil
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ekaterina S Jordanova
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Center for Gynaecologic Oncology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Najim Ameziane
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Josephine C Dorsman
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Daphne M van Beek
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Daoud Sie
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Bauke Ylstra
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Carolien H M van Deurzen
- Department of Pathology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - John W Martens
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Marcel Smid
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Anieta M Sieuwerts
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Vanja de Weerd
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - John A Foekens
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ans M W van den Ouweland
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ewald van Dyk
- Department of Pathology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Petra M Nederlof
- Department of Molecular Carcinogenesis, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Quinten Waisfisz
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Hanne Meijers-Heijboer
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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9
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Stoepker C, Faramarz A, Rooimans MA, van Mil SE, Balk JA, Velleuer E, Ameziane N, te Riele H, de Winter JP. DNA helicases FANCM and DDX11 are determinants of PARP inhibitor sensitivity. DNA Repair (Amst) 2015; 26:54-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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10
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Bakker JL, Thirthagiri E, van Mil SE, Adank MA, Ikeda H, Verheul HMW, Meijers-Heijboer H, de Winter JP, Sharan SK, Waisfisz Q. A novel splice site mutation in the noncoding region of BRCA2: implications for Fanconi anemia and familial breast cancer diagnostics. Hum Mutat 2014; 35:442-6. [PMID: 24395671 DOI: 10.1002/humu.22505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare recessive disorder with chromosomal instability, congenital abnormalities, and a high cancer risk. The breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2 (FANCD1) is one of the 16 genes involved in this recessive disease. We have identified a novel mutation of the splice donor site of intron 1 in the noncoding region of BRCA2 in a Japanese FA family. This mutation may account for the FA phenotype in a patient originally reported to have biallelic mutations in BRCA2. Subsequent functional studies revealed that one of the mutations, K2729N, was a neutral change. As reported here, a more careful analysis resulted in the identification of a novel splice site mutation. Functional analysis using a mouse embryonic stem cell-based assay revealed that it causes aberrant splicing, reduced transcript levels and hypersensitivity to DNA damaging agents, suggesting that it is likely to be pathogenic. Although similar pathogenic variants in the noncoding region of BRCA1 and 2 were not identified in a cohort of 752 familial breast cancer cases, we still think this finding is relevant for mutation analysis in Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome families in a diagnostic setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine L Bakker
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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11
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Bakker JL, van Mil SE, Crossan G, Sabbaghian N, De Leeneer K, Poppe B, Adank M, Gille H, Verheul H, Meijers-Heijboer H, de Winter JP, Claes K, Tischkowitz M, Waisfisz Q. Analysis of the novel fanconi anemia gene SLX4/FANCP in familial breast cancer cases. Hum Mutat 2012; 34:70-3. [PMID: 22911665 DOI: 10.1002/humu.22206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 08/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
SLX4/FANCP is a recently discovered novel disease gene for Fanconi anemia (FA), a rare recessive disorder characterized by chromosomal instability and increased cancer susceptibility. Three of the 15 FA genes are breast cancer susceptibility genes in heterozygous mutation carriers--BRCA2, PALB2, and BRIP1. To investigate if defects in SLX4 also predispose to breast cancer, the gene was sequenced in a cohort of 729 BRCA1/BRCA2-negative familial breast cancer cases. We identified a single splice site mutation (c.2013+2T>A), which causes a frameshift by skipping of exon 8. We also identified 39 missense variants, four of which were selected for functional testing in a Mitomycin C-induced growth inhibition assay, and appeared indistinguishable from wild type. Although this is the first study that describes a truncating SLX4 mutation in breast cancer patients, our data indicate that germline mutations in SLX4 are very rare and are unlikely to make a significant contribution to familial breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine L Bakker
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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12
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Adank MA, Jonker MA, Kluijt I, van Mil SE, Oldenburg RA, Mooi WJ, Hogervorst FBL, van den Ouweland AMW, Gille JJP, Schmidt MK, van der Vaart AW, Meijers-Heijboer H, Waisfisz Q. CHEK2*1100delC homozygosity is associated with a high breast cancer risk in women. J Med Genet 2011; 48:860-3. [PMID: 22058428 DOI: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2011-100380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in the CHEK2 gene confer a moderately increased breast cancer risk. The risk for female carriers of the CHEK2*1100delC mutation is twofold increased. Breast cancer risk for carrier women is higher in a familial breast cancer setting which is due to coinheritance of additional genetic risk factors. This study investigated the occurrence of homozygosity for the CHEK2*1100delC allele among familial breast cancer cases and the associated breast cancer risk. METHODS AND RESULTS Homozygosity for the CHEK2*1100delC allele was identified in 8/2554 Dutch independent familial non-BRCA1/2 breast cancer cases. The genotype relative risk for breast cancer of homozygous and heterozygous familial breast cancer cases was 101.34 (95% CI 4.47 to 121 000) and 4.04 (95% CI 0.88 to 21.0), respectively. Female homozygotes appeared to have a greater than twofold increased breast cancer risk compared to familial CHEK2*1100delC heterozygotes (p=0.044). These results and the occurrence of multiple primary tumours in 7/10 homozygotes indicate a high cancer risk in homozygous women from non-BRCA1/2 families. CONCLUSIONS Intensive breast surveillance is therefore justified in these homozygous women. It is concluded that diagnostic testing for biallelic mutations in CHEK2 is indicated in non-BRCA1/2 breast cancer families, especially in populations with a relatively high prevalence of deleterious mutations in CHEK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel A Adank
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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13
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Adank MA, Segers H, van Mil SE, van Helsdingen YM, Ameziane N, van den Ouweland AMW, Wagner A, Meijers-Heijboer H, Kool M, de Kraker J, Waisfisz Q, van den Heuvel-Eibrink MM. Fanconi anemia gene mutations are not involved in sporadic Wilms tumor. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2010; 55:742-4. [PMID: 20589654 DOI: 10.1002/pbc.22588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bi-allelic germline mutations of the Fanconi anemia (FA) genes, PALB2/FANCN and BRCA2/FANCD1, have been reported in a few Wilms tumor (WT) patients with an atypical FA phenotype. Therefore, we screened a random cohort of 47 Dutch WT cases for germline mutations in these two FA-genes by DNA sequencing and Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA). Although several cases appeared to carry missense variants, no bi-allelic pathogenic mutations were identified, indicating that bi-allelic mutations in these FA-genes do not contribute significantly to the occurrence of WT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel A Adank
- Section Oncogenetics, Department of Clinical Genetics, VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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14
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Bronner IF, Rizzu P, Seelaar H, van Mil SE, Anar B, Azmani A, Donker Kaat L, Rosso S, Heutink P, van Swieten JC. Progranulin mutations in Dutch familial frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Eur J Hum Genet 2007; 15:369-74. [PMID: 17228326 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the progranulin (PGRN) gene have recently been identified in frontotemporal lobar degeneration with ubiquitin inclusions linked to chromosome 17q21. We report here the finding of two novel frameshift mutations and three possible pathogenic missense mutations in the PGRN gene. Furthermore, we determined the frequency of PGRN mutations in familial cases recruited from a large population-based study of frontotemporal lobar degeneration carried out in The Netherlands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iraad F Bronner
- Department of Human Genetics, Section Medical Genomics, VU University Medical Center and VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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15
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Rizzu P, van Mil SE, Anar B, Rosso SM, Donker Kaat L, Heutink P, van Swieten JC. CHMP2B mutations are not a cause of dementia in Dutch patients with familial and sporadic frontotemporal dementia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2006; 141B:944-6. [PMID: 16941655 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the CHMP2B gene have been recently identified in a large Danish pedigree with autosomal dominant frontotemporal dementia (FTD) linked to chromosome 3 (FTD3). We report the frequency of CHMP2B mutations in 162 FTD patients recruited from a large population-based study of FTD carried out in The Netherlands. Our results suggest that mutations in CHMP2B are a rare cause of FTD as compared to MAPT mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Rizzu
- Department of Human Genetics, Section Medical Genomics, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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16
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Gould DB, Phalan FC, van Mil SE, Sundberg JP, Vahedi K, Massin P, Bousser MG, Heutink P, Miner JH, Tournier-Lasserve E, John SWM. Role of COL4A1 in small-vessel disease and hemorrhagic stroke. N Engl J Med 2006; 354:1489-96. [PMID: 16598045 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa053727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 359] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Small-vessel diseases of the brain underlie 20 to 30 percent of ischemic strokes and a larger proportion of intracerebral hemorrhages. In this report, we show that a mutation in the mouse Col4a1 gene, encoding procollagen type IV alpha1, predisposes both newborn and adult mice to intracerebral hemorrhage. Surgical delivery of mutant mice alleviated birth-associated trauma and hemorrhage. We identified a COL4A1 mutation in a human family with small-vessel disease. We concluded that mutation of COL4A1 may cause a spectrum of cerebrovascular phenotypes and that persons with COL4A1 mutations may be predisposed to hemorrhage, especially after environmental stress.
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17
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Gould DB, Phalan FC, Breedveld GJ, van Mil SE, Smith RS, Schimenti JC, Aguglia U, van der Knaap MS, Heutink P, John SWM. Mutations in Col4a1 cause perinatal cerebral hemorrhage and porencephaly. Science 2005; 308:1167-71. [PMID: 15905400 DOI: 10.1126/science.1109418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Porencephaly is a rare neurological disease, typically manifest in infants, which is characterized by the existence of degenerative cavities in the brain. To investigate the molecular pathogenesis of porencephaly, we studied a mouse mutant that develops porencephaly secondary to focal disruptions of vascular basement membranes. Half of the mutant mice died with cerebral hemorrhage within a day of birth, and approximately 18% of survivors had porencephaly. We show that vascular defects are caused by a semidominant mutation in the procollagen type IV alpha 1 gene (Col4a1) in mice, which inhibits the secretion of mutant and normal type IV collagen. We also show that COL4A1 mutations segregate with porencephaly in human families. Because not all mutant mice develop porencephaly, we propose that Col4a1 mutations conspire with environmental trauma in causing the disease.
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