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Durr J, Reyt G, Spaepen S, Hilton S, Meehan C, Qi W, Kamiya T, Flis P, Dickinson HG, Feher A, Shivshankar U, Pavagadhi S, Swarup S, Salt D, Bending GD, Gutierrez-Marcos J. A Novel Signaling Pathway Required for Arabidopsis Endodermal Root Organization Shapes the Rhizosphere Microbiome. Plant Cell Physiol 2021; 62:248-261. [PMID: 33475132 PMCID: PMC8112839 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcaa170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The Casparian strip (CS) constitutes a physical diffusion barrier to water and nutrients in plant roots, which is formed by the polar deposition of lignin polymer in the endodermis tissue. The precise pattern of lignin deposition is determined by the scaffolding activity of membrane-bound Casparian Strip domain proteins (CASPs), but little is known of the mechanism(s) directing this process. Here, we demonstrate that Endodermis-specific Receptor-like Kinase 1 (ERK1) and, to a lesser extent, ROP Binding Kinase1 (RBK1) are also involved in regulating CS formation, with the former playing an essential role in lignin deposition as well as in the localization of CASP1. We show that ERK1 is localized to the cytoplasm and nucleus of the endodermis and that together with the circadian clock regulator, Time for Coffee (TIC), forms part of a novel signaling pathway necessary for correct CS organization and suberization of the endodermis, with their single or combined loss of function resulting in altered root microbiome composition. In addition, we found that other mutants displaying defects in suberin deposition at the CS also display altered root exudates and microbiome composition. Thus, our work reveals a complex network of signaling factors operating within the root endodermis that establish both the CS diffusion barrier and influence the microbial composition of the rhizosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julius Durr
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Guilhem Reyt
- Division of Plant and Crop Sciences, Future Food Beacon of Excellence & School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions & Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linn�-Weg 10, K�ln 50829, Germany
- Centre for Microbial and Plant Genetics, Leuven Institute for Beer Research, University of Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1 B-3001, Belgium
| | - Sally Hilton
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Cathal Meehan
- Division of Plant and Crop Sciences, Future Food Beacon of Excellence & School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Wu Qi
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Takehiro Kamiya
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Paulina Flis
- Division of Plant and Crop Sciences, Future Food Beacon of Excellence & School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Hugh G Dickinson
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK
| | - Attila Feher
- Institute of Plant Biology, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Temesv�ri krt. 62, Szeged H-6726, Hungary
| | - Umashankar Shivshankar
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shruti Pavagadhi
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - Sanjay Swarup
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - David Salt
- Division of Plant and Crop Sciences, Future Food Beacon of Excellence & School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Gary D Bending
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
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Baudson C, Delory BM, Spaepen S, du Jardin P, Delaplace P. Developmental plasticity of Brachypodium distachyon in response to P deficiency: Modulation by inoculation with phosphate-solubilizing bacteria. Plant Direct 2021; 5:e00296. [PMID: 33532689 PMCID: PMC7833465 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mineral phosphorus (P) fertilizers must be used wisely in order to preserve rock phosphate, a limited and non-renewable resource. The use of bio-inoculants to improve soil nutrient availability and trigger an efficient plant response to nutrient deficiency is one potential strategy in the attempt to decrease P inputs in agriculture. METHOD An in vitro co-cultivation system was used to study the response of Brachypodium distachyon to contrasted P supplies (soluble and poorly soluble forms of P) and inoculation with P solubilizing bacteria. Brachypodium's responses to P conditions and inoculation with bacteria were studied in terms of developmental plasticity and P use efficiency. RESULTS Brachypodium showed plasticity in its biomass allocation pattern in response to variable P conditions, specifically by prioritizing root development over shoot productivity under poorly soluble P conditions. Despite the ability of the bacteria to solubilize P, shoot productivity was depressed in plants inoculated with bacteria, although the root system development was maintained. The negative impact of bacteria on biomass production in Brachypodium might be attributed to inadequate C supply to bacteria, an increased competition for P between both organisms under P-limiting conditions, or an accumulation of toxic bacterial metabolites in our cultivation system. Both P and inoculation treatments impacted root system morphology. The modulation of Brachypodium's developmental response to P supplies by P solubilizing bacteria did not lead to improved P use efficiency. CONCLUSION Our results support the hypothesis that plastic responses of Brachypodium cultivated under P-limited conditions are modulated by P solubilizing bacteria. The considered experimental context impacts plant-bacteria interactions. Choosing experimental conditions as close as possible to real ones is important in the selection of P solubilizing bacteria. Both persistent homology and allometric analyses proved to be useful tools that should be considered when studying the impact of bio-inoculants on plant development in response to varying nutritional context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Baudson
- Plant SciencesGembloux Agro‐Bio TechUniversity of LiègeLiègeBelgium
| | | | - Stijn Spaepen
- Leuven Institute for Beer ResearchUniversity of LeuvenLeuvenBelgium
| | | | - Pierre Delaplace
- Plant SciencesGembloux Agro‐Bio TechUniversity of LiègeLiègeBelgium
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Sombolestani AS, Cleenwerck I, Cnockaert M, Borremans W, Wieme AD, Moutia Y, Spaepen S, De Vuyst L, Vandamme P. Gluconacetobacter dulcium sp. nov., a novel Gluconacetobacter species from sugar-rich environments. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2020; 71. [PMID: 33351739 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.004569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A phylogenomic analysis based on 107 single-copy core genes revealed that three strains from sugar-rich environments, i.e. LMG 1728T, LMG 1731 and LMG 22058, represented a single, novel Gluconacetobacter lineage with Gluconacetobacter liquefaciens as nearest validly named neighbour. OrthoANIu and digital DNA-DNA hybridization analyses among these strains and Gluconacetobacter type strains confirmed that the three strains represented a novel Gluconacetobacter species. Biochemical characteristics and MALDI-TOF mass spectra allowed differentiation of this novel species from the type strains of G. liquefaciens and other closely related Gluconacetobacter species. We therefore propose to classify strains LMG 1728T, LMG 1731 and LMG 22058 in the novel species Gluconacetobacter dulcium sp. nov., with LMG 1728T (=CECT 30142T) as the type strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atena Sadat Sombolestani
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ilse Cleenwerck
- BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Margo Cnockaert
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wim Borremans
- Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology, Department of Bioengineering Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Bioengineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Anneleen D Wieme
- BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Yvan Moutia
- Plant Pathology Department, Mauritius Sugarcane Industry Research Institute, Mauritius Cane Industry Authority, 1, Moka Road, Réduit, Mauritius.,Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20 - Box 2460, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20 - Box 2460, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Luc De Vuyst
- Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology, Department of Bioengineering Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Bioengineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Peter Vandamme
- BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.,Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Park R, Dzialo MC, Spaepen S, Nsabimana D, Gielens K, Devriese H, Crauwels S, Tito RY, Raes J, Lievens B, Verstrepen KJ. Microbial communities of the house fly Musca domestica vary with geographical location and habitat. Microbiome 2019; 7:147. [PMID: 31699144 PMCID: PMC6839111 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-019-0748-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
House flies (Musca domestica) are widespread, synanthropic filth flies commonly found on decaying matter, garbage, and feces as well as human food. They have been shown to vector microbes, including clinically relevant pathogens. Previous studies have demonstrated that house flies carry a complex and variable prokaryotic microbiota, but the main drivers underlying this variability and the influence of habitat on the microbiota remain understudied. Moreover, the differences between the external and internal microbiota and the eukaryotic components have not been examined. To obtain a comprehensive view of the fly microbiota and its environmental drivers, we sampled over 400 flies from two geographically distinct countries (Belgium and Rwanda) and three different environments-farms, homes, and hospitals. Both the internal as well as external microbiota of the house flies were studied, using amplicon sequencing targeting both bacteria and fungi. Results show that the house fly's internal bacterial community is very diverse yet relatively consistent across geographic location and habitat, dominated by genera Staphylococcus and Weissella. The external bacterial community, however, varies with geographic location and habitat. The fly fungal microbiota carries a distinct signature correlating with the country of sampling, with order Capnodiales and genus Wallemia dominating Belgian flies and genus Cladosporium dominating Rwandan fly samples. Together, our results reveal an intricate country-specific pattern for fungal communities, a relatively stable internal bacterial microbiota and a variable external bacterial microbiota that depends on geographical location and habitat. These findings suggest that vectoring of a wide spectrum of environmental microbes occurs principally through the external fly body surface, while the internal microbiome is likely more limited by fly physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahel Park
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- CMPG Laboratory of Genetics and Genomics, Department M2S, KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Maria C Dzialo
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- CMPG Laboratory of Genetics and Genomics, Department M2S, KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- CMPG Laboratory of Genetics and Genomics, Department M2S, KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Donat Nsabimana
- Biology Department, School of Science, College of Science and technology, University of Rwanda, RN1, Butare, Rwanda
| | - Kim Gielens
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- CMPG Laboratory of Genetics and Genomics, Department M2S, KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Herman Devriese
- Safety, Health & Environment Department, UZ Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sam Crauwels
- Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for Process Microbial Ecology and Bioinspirational Management (PME&BIM), Department M2S, KU Leuven, Campus De Nayer, Fortsesteenweg 30A, 2860, Sint-Katelijne Waver, Belgium
| | - Raul Y Tito
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Bioinformatics and (eco-)systems biology lab, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Raes
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Bioinformatics and (eco-)systems biology lab, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart Lievens
- Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for Process Microbial Ecology and Bioinspirational Management (PME&BIM), Department M2S, KU Leuven, Campus De Nayer, Fortsesteenweg 30A, 2860, Sint-Katelijne Waver, Belgium
| | - Kevin J Verstrepen
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium.
- CMPG Laboratory of Genetics and Genomics, Department M2S, KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium.
- Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, 3001, Leuven, Belgium.
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Finkel OM, Salas-González I, Castrillo G, Spaepen S, Law TF, Teixeira PJPL, Jones CD, Dangl JL. The effects of soil phosphorus content on plant microbiota are driven by the plant phosphate starvation response. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000534. [PMID: 31721759 PMCID: PMC6876890 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphate starvation response (PSR) in nonmycorrhizal plants comprises transcriptional reprogramming resulting in severe physiological changes to the roots and shoots and repression of plant immunity. Thus, plant-colonizing microorganisms-the plant microbiota-are exposed to direct influence by the soil's phosphorus (P) content itself as well as to the indirect effects of soil P on the microbial niches shaped by the plant. The individual contribution of these factors to plant microbiota assembly remains unknown. To disentangle these direct and indirect effects, we planted PSR-deficient Arabidopsis mutants in a long-term managed soil P gradient and compared the composition of their shoot and root microbiota to wild-type plants across different P concentrations. PSR-deficiency had a larger effect on the composition of both bacterial and fungal plant-associated microbiota than soil P concentrations in both roots and shoots. To dissect plant-microbe interactions under variable P conditions, we conducted a microbiota reconstitution experiment. Using a 185-member bacterial synthetic community (SynCom) across a wide P concentration gradient in an agar matrix, we demonstrated a shift in the effect of bacteria on the plant from a neutral or positive interaction to a negative one, as measured by rosette size. This phenotypic shift was accompanied by changes in microbiota composition: the genus Burkholderia was specifically enriched in plant tissue under P starvation. Through a community drop-out experiment, we demonstrated that in the absence of Burkholderia from the SynCom, plant shoots accumulated higher ortophosphate (Pi) levels than shoots colonized with the full SynCom but only under Pi starvation conditions. Therefore, Pi-stressed plants are susceptible to colonization by latent opportunistic competitors found within their microbiome, thus exacerbating the plant's Pi starvation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omri M. Finkel
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Isai Salas-González
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Curriculum in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Gabriel Castrillo
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Department Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Theresa F. Law
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Paulo José Pereira Lima Teixeira
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Corbin D. Jones
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Curriculum in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Jeffery L. Dangl
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Curriculum in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
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Rivera D, Mora V, Lopez G, Rosas S, Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J, Cassan F. New insights into indole-3-acetic acid metabolism in Azospirillum brasilense. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 125:1774-1785. [PMID: 30144254 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The aim of this research was to analyse the global indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) metabolism in three commercially used strains of Azospirillum brasilense. METHODS AND RESULTS Azospirillum brasilense Sp245, Az39 and Cd, containing a plasmid with the ipdC-gusA fusion (pFAJ64), were cultured in minimal medium MMAB with or without 10 mg l-1 of l-trp till exponential or stationary growth phase. The cultures were then split into 10 ml tubes and individually treated with 10 mg ml-1 IAA, IBA or NAA (auxin catabolism and homeostasis); IAPhe, IALeu, IAA-ala, IAA-glucose (IAA conjugate hydrolysis); or l-lys, l-leu, l-ileu, l-phe, l-ala, l-val, l-arg, l-glu, l-his, l-met, l-asp, l-cys, l-ser, l-pro, l-thr and l-trp (regulation of IAA biosynthesis and IAA conjugation). Bacterial growth, IAA production and ipdC expression were evaluated. None of the A. brasilense strains were able to hydrolyse IAA conjugates, catabolize auxins, or conjugate IAA with amino acids or glucose. l-amino acids l-met, l-val, l-cys and l-ser inhibited bacterial growth and decreased IAA biosynthesis. The expression of ipdC and IAA biosynthesis but not bacterial growth was affected by l-leu, l-phe, l-ala, l-ile, l-pro. l-arg, l-glu, l-his, l-lys, l-asp and l-thr did not affect any of the measured parameters. CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we confirmed that A. brasilense produces IAA only in presence of l-trp is not able to degrade auxins, conjugate IAA with sugars and/or l-amino acids, or hydrolyse such conjugates to release free IAA. Finally, we found that bacterial growth and/or IAA biosynthesis were inhibited by the presence of several l-amino acids probably by diversion of the cellular metabolism. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY We propose a renewed model to explain IAA metabolism in A. brasilense, one of the most studied phytostimulatory bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Rivera
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - V Mora
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - G Lopez
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - S Rosas
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - S Spaepen
- Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - F Cassan
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
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Molina R, Rivera D, Mora V, López G, Rosas S, Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J, Cassán F. Regulation of IAA Biosynthesis in Azospirillum brasilense Under Environmental Stress Conditions. Curr Microbiol 2018; 75:1408-1418. [PMID: 29980814 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-018-1537-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is one of the most important molecules produced by Azospirillum sp., given that it affects plant growth and development. Azospirillum brasilense strains Sp245 and Az39 (pFAJ64) were pre-incubated in MMAB medium plus 100 mg/mL L-tryptophan and treated with or exposed to the following (a) abiotic and (b) biotic stress effectors: (a) 100 mM NaCl or Na2SO4, 4.0% (w/v) PEG6000, 0.5 mM H2O2, 0.1 mM abscisic acid, 0.1 mM 1-aminocyclopropane 1-carboxylic acid, 45 °C or daylight, and (b) 4.0% (v/v) filtered supernatant of Pseudomonas savastanoi (Ps) or Fusarium oxysporum (Fo), 0.1 mM salicylic acid (SA), 0.1 mM methyl jasmonic acid (MeJA), and 0.01% (w/v) chitosan (CH). After 30 and 120 min of incubation, biomass production, cell viability, IAA concentration (µg/mL), and ipdC gene expression were measured. Our results show that IAA production increases with daylight or in the presence of PEG6000, ABA, SA, CH, and Fo. On the contrary, exposure to 45 °C or treatment with H2O2, NaCl, Na2SO4, ACC, MeJA, and Ps decrease IAA biosynthesis. In this report, growth and IAA biosynthesis in A. brasilense under biotic and abiotic stress conditions are discussed from the point of view of their role in bacterial lifestyle and their potential application as bioproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romina Molina
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Diego Rivera
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Verónica Mora
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Gastón López
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Susana Rosas
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Plant Microbe Interactions, Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Fabricio Cassán
- Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina.
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Torres D, Benavidez I, Donadio F, Mongiardini E, Rosas S, Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J, Pěnčík A, Novák O, Strnad M, Frébortová J, Cassán F. New insights into auxin metabolism in Bradyrhizobium japonicum. Res Microbiol 2018; 169:313-323. [PMID: 29751062 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial metabolism of phytohormones includes several processes such as biosynthesis, catabolism, conjugation, hydrolysis and homeostatic regulation. However, only biosynthesis and occasionally catabolism are studied in depth in microorganisms. In this work, we evaluated and reconsidered IAA metabolism in Bradyrhizobiumjaponicum E109, one of the most widely used strains for soybean inoculation around the world. The genomic analysis of the strain showed the presence of several genes responsible for IAA biosynthesis, mainly via indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN), indole-3-acetamide (IAM) and tryptamine (TAM) pathways. However; in vitro experiments showed that IAA is not accumulated in the culture medium in significant amounts. On the contrary, a strong degradation activity was observed after exogenous addition of 0.1 mM of IAA, IBA or NAA to the medium. B. japonicum E109 was not able to grow in culture medium containing IAA as a sole carbon source. In YEM medium, the bacteria degraded IAA and hydrolyzed amino acid auxin conjugates with alanine (IAAla), phenylalanine (IAPhe), and leucine (IAPhe), releasing IAA which was quickly degraded. Finally, the presence of exogenous IAA induced physiological changes in the bacteria such as increased biomass and exopolysaccharide production, as well as infection effectiveness and symbiotic behavior in soybean plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Torres
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal y de la Interacción Planta-microorganismo, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, FCEFQyN, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Iliana Benavidez
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal y de la Interacción Planta-microorganismo, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, FCEFQyN, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Florencia Donadio
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal y de la Interacción Planta-microorganismo, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, FCEFQyN, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Elias Mongiardini
- Laboratorio de Interacción Rizobios y Soja, Instituto de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina
| | - Susana Rosas
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal y de la Interacción Planta-microorganismo, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, FCEFQyN, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Plant Microbe Interactions, Köln, Germany
| | | | - Aleš Pěnčík
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jitka Frébortová
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Fabricio Cassán
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal y de la Interacción Planta-microorganismo, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, FCEFQyN, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36, Km 601, Córdoba, Argentina.
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9
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Abstract
The innate immune system of plants recognizes microbial pathogens and terminates their growth. However, recent findings suggest that at least one layer of this system is also engaged in cooperative plant-microbe interactions and influences host colonization by beneficial microbial communities. This immune layer involves sensing of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that initiate quantitative immune responses to control host-microbial load, whereas diversification of MAMPs and PRRs emerges as a mechanism that locally sculpts microbial assemblages in plant populations. This suggests a more complex microbial management role of the innate immune system for controlled accommodation of beneficial microbes and in pathogen elimination. The finding that similar molecular strategies are deployed by symbionts and pathogens to dampen immune responses is consistent with this hypothesis but implies different selective pressures on the immune system due to contrasting outcomes on plant fitness. The reciprocal interplay between microbiota and the immune system likely plays a critical role in shaping beneficial plant-microbiota combinations and maintaining microbial homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Hacquard
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
| | - Ruben Garrido-Oter
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Paul Schulze-Lefert
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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10
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Abstract
The innate immune system of plants recognizes microbial pathogens and terminates their growth. However, recent findings suggest that at least one layer of this system is also engaged in cooperative plant-microbe interactions and influences host colonization by beneficial microbial communities. This immune layer involves sensing of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that initiate quantitative immune responses to control host-microbial load, whereas diversification of MAMPs and PRRs emerges as a mechanism that locally sculpts microbial assemblages in plant populations. This suggests a more complex microbial management role of the innate immune system for controlled accommodation of beneficial microbes and in pathogen elimination. The finding that similar molecular strategies are deployed by symbionts and pathogens to dampen immune responses is consistent with this hypothesis but implies different selective pressures on the immune system due to contrasting outcomes on plant fitness. The reciprocal interplay between microbiota and the immune system likely plays a critical role in shaping beneficial plant-microbiota combinations and maintaining microbial homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Hacquard
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
| | - Ruben Garrido-Oter
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Paul Schulze-Lefert
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany;
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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11
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Bai Y, Müller DB, Srinivas G, Garrido-Oter R, Potthoff E, Rott M, Dombrowski N, Münch PC, Spaepen S, Remus-Emsermann M, Hüttel B, McHardy AC, Vorholt JA, Schulze-Lefert P. Functional overlap of the Arabidopsis leaf and root microbiota. Nature 2015; 528:364-9. [DOI: 10.1038/nature16192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 700] [Impact Index Per Article: 77.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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12
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Delaplace P, Delory BM, Baudson C, Mendaluk-Saunier de Cazenave M, Spaepen S, Varin S, Brostaux Y, du Jardin P. Influence of rhizobacterial volatiles on the root system architecture and the production and allocation of biomass in the model grass Brachypodium distachyon (L.) P. Beauv. BMC Plant Biol 2015; 15:195. [PMID: 26264238 PMCID: PMC4531529 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-015-0585-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria are increasingly being seen as a way of complementing conventional inputs in agricultural systems. The effects on their host plants are diverse and include volatile-mediated growth enhancement. This study sought to assess the effects of bacterial volatiles on the biomass production and root system architecture of the model grass Brachypodium distachyon (L.) Beauv. RESULTS An in vitro experiment allowing plant-bacteria interaction throughout the gaseous phase without any physical contact was used to screen 19 bacterial strains for their growth-promotion ability over a 10-day co-cultivation period. Five groups of bacteria were defined and characterised based on their combined influence on biomass production and root system architecture. The observed effects ranged from unchanged to greatly increased biomass production coupled with increased root length and branching. Primary root length was increased only by the volatile compounds emitted by Enterobacter cloacae JM22 and Bacillus pumilus T4. Overall, the most significant results were obtained with Bacillus subtilis GB03, which induced an 81 % increase in total biomass, as well as enhancing total root length, total secondary root length and total adventitious root length by 88.5, 201.5 and 474.5 %, respectively. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first report on bacterial volatile-mediated growth promotion of a grass plant. Contrasting modulations of biomass production coupled with changes in root system architecture were observed. Most of the strains that increased total plant biomass also modulated adventitious root growth. Under our screening conditions, total biomass production was strongly correlated with the length and branching of the root system components, except for primary root length. An analysis of the emission kinetics of the bacterial volatile compounds is being undertaken and should lead to the identification of the compounds responsible for the observed growth-promotion effects. Within the context of the inherent characteristics of our in vitro system, this paper identifies the next critical experimental steps and discusses them from both a fundamental and an applied perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Delaplace
- University of Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Plant Biology, Passage des Déportés 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Benjamin M Delory
- University of Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Plant Biology, Passage des Déportés 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Caroline Baudson
- University of Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Plant Biology, Passage des Déportés 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium.
| | | | - Stijn Spaepen
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Köln, Germany.
| | - Sébastien Varin
- University of Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Plant Biology, Passage des Déportés 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Yves Brostaux
- University of Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Applied Statistics, Computer Science and Modeling, Passage des Déportés 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Patrick du Jardin
- University of Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Plant Biology, Passage des Déportés 2, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium.
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13
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Hacquard S, Garrido-Oter R, González A, Spaepen S, Ackermann G, Lebeis S, McHardy A, Dangl J, Knight R, Ley R, Schulze-Lefert P. Microbiota and Host Nutrition across Plant and Animal Kingdoms. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 17:603-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 439] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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14
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Spaepen S, Bossuyt S, Engelen K, Marchal K, Vanderleyden J. Phenotypical and molecular responses of Arabidopsis thaliana roots as a result of inoculation with the auxin-producing bacterium Azospirillum brasilense. New Phytol 2014; 201:850-861. [PMID: 24219779 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The auxin-producing bacterium Azospirillum brasilense Sp245 can promote the growth of several plant species. The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana was chosen as host plant to gain an insight into the molecular mechanisms that govern this interaction. The determination of differential gene expression in Arabidopsis roots after inoculation with either A. brasilense wild-type or an auxin biosynthesis mutant was achieved by microarray analysis. Arabidopsis thaliana inoculation with A. brasilense wild-type increases the number of lateral roots and root hairs, and elevates the internal auxin concentration in the plant. The A. thaliana root transcriptome undergoes extensive changes on A. brasilense inoculation, and the effects are more pronounced at later time points. The wild-type bacterial strain induces changes in hormone- and defense-related genes, as well as in plant cell wall-related genes. The A. brasilense mutant, however, does not elicit these transcriptional changes to the same extent. There are qualitative and quantitative differences between A. thaliana responses to the wild-type A. brasilense strain and the auxin biosynthesis mutant strain, based on both phenotypic and transcriptomic data. This illustrates the major role played by auxin in the Azospirillum-Arabidopsis interaction, and possibly also in other bacterium-plant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn Spaepen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Stijn Bossuyt
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Kristof Engelen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, Via E. Mach, 1, 38010, San Michele all'Adige, Trento, Italy
| | - Kathleen Marchal
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Gent, Belgium
| | - Jos Vanderleyden
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium
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15
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Van de Poel B, Vandenzavel N, Smet C, Nicolay T, Bulens I, Mellidou I, Vandoninck S, Hertog ML, Derua R, Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J, Waelkens E, De Proft MP, Nicolai BM, Geeraerd AH. Tissue specific analysis reveals a differential organization and regulation of both ethylene biosynthesis and E8 during climacteric ripening of tomato. BMC Plant Biol 2014; 14:11. [PMID: 24401128 PMCID: PMC3900696 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-14-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2014] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Solanum lycopersicum or tomato is extensively studied with respect to the ethylene metabolism during climacteric ripening, focusing almost exclusively on fruit pericarp. In this work the ethylene biosynthesis pathway was examined in all major tomato fruit tissues: pericarp, septa, columella, placenta, locular gel and seeds. The tissue specific ethylene production rate was measured throughout fruit development, climacteric ripening and postharvest storage. All ethylene intermediate metabolites (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), malonyl-ACC (MACC) and S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM)) and enzyme activities (ACC-oxidase (ACO) and ACC-synthase (ACS)) were assessed. RESULTS All tissues showed a similar climacteric pattern in ethylene productions, but with a different amplitude. Profound differences were found between tissue types at the metabolic and enzymatic level. The pericarp tissue produced the highest amount of ethylene, but showed only a low ACC content and limited ACS activity, while the locular gel accumulated a lot of ACC, MACC and SAM and showed only limited ACO and ACS activity. Central tissues (septa, columella and placenta) showed a strong accumulation of ACC and MACC. These differences indicate that the ethylene biosynthesis pathway is organized and regulated in a tissue specific way. The possible role of inter- and intra-tissue transport is discussed to explain these discrepancies. Furthermore, the antagonistic relation between ACO and E8, an ethylene biosynthesis inhibiting protein, was shown to be tissue specific and developmentally regulated. In addition, ethylene inhibition by E8 is not achieved by a direct interaction between ACO and E8, as previously suggested in literature. CONCLUSIONS The Ethylene biosynthesis pathway and E8 show a tissue specific and developmental differentiation throughout tomato fruit development and ripening.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Annemie H Geeraerd
- Division of Mechatronics, Biostatistics and Sensors (MeBioS), Department of Biosystems (BIOSYST), KU Leuven, Willem de Croylaan 42, bus 2428, 3001 Leuven, Belgium.
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16
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Abstract
Cell surface display of proteins can be used for several biotechnological applications such as the screening of protein libraries, whole cell biocatalysis and live vaccine development. Amongst all secretion systems and surface appendages of Gram-negative bacteria, the autotransporter secretion pathway holds great potential for surface display because of its modular structure and apparent simplicity. Autotransporters are polypeptides made up of an N-terminal signal peptide, a secreted or surface-displayed passenger domain and a membrane-anchored C-terminal translocation unit. Genetic replacement of the passenger domain allows for the surface display of heterologous passengers. An autotransporter-based surface expression module essentially consists of an application-dependent promoter system, a signal peptide, a passenger domain of interest and the autotransporter translocation unit. The passenger domain needs to be compatible with surface translocation although till now no general rules have been determined to test this compatibility. The autotransporter technology for surface display of heterologous passenger domains is critically discussed for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toon Nicolay
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics , Leuven , Belgium
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17
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Ghequire MGK, Garcia-Pino A, Lebbe EKM, Spaepen S, Loris R, De Mot R. Structural determinants for activity and specificity of the bacterial toxin LlpA. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003199. [PMID: 23468636 PMCID: PMC3585409 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lectin-like bacteriotoxic proteins, identified in several plant-associated bacteria, are able to selectively kill closely related species, including several phytopathogens, such as Pseudomonas syringae and Xanthomonas species, but so far their mode of action remains unrevealed. The crystal structure of LlpABW, the prototype lectin-like bacteriocin from Pseudomonas putida, reveals an architecture of two monocot mannose-binding lectin (MMBL) domains and a C-terminal β-hairpin extension. The C-terminal MMBL domain (C-domain) adopts a fold very similar to MMBL domains from plant lectins and contains a binding site for mannose and oligomannosides. Mutational analysis indicates that an intact sugar-binding pocket in this domain is crucial for bactericidal activity. The N-terminal MMBL domain (N-domain) adopts the same fold but is structurally more divergent and lacks a functional mannose-binding site. Differential activity of engineered N/C-domain chimers derived from two LlpA homologues with different killing spectra, disclosed that the N-domain determines target specificity. Apparently this bacteriocin is assembled from two structurally similar domains that evolved separately towards dedicated functions in target recognition and bacteriotoxicity. In their natural environments, microorganisms compete for space and nutrients, and a major strategy to assist in niche colonization is the deployment of antagonistic compounds directed at competitors, such as secondary metabolites (antibiotics) and antibacterial peptides or proteins (bacteriocins). The latter selectively kill closely related bacteria, which is also the case for members of the LlpA family. Here, we investigate the structure-function relationship for the prototype LlpABW from a saprophytic plant-associated Pseudomonas whose genus-specific target spectrum includes several phytopathogenic pseudomonads. By determining the 3D structure of this protein, we could assign LlpA to the so-called monocot mannose-binding lectin (MMBL) family, representing its first prokaryotic member, and also add a new type of protective function, as the eukaryotic MMBL members have been linked with antiviral, antifungal, nematicidal or insecticidal activities. For the protein containing two similarly folded domains, we constructed site-specific mutants affected in carbohydrate binding and domain chimers from LlpA homologues to show that mannose-specific sugar binding mediated by one domain is required for activity and that the other domain determines target strain specificity. The strategy that evolved for these bacteriocins is reminiscent of the one used by mammalian bactericidal proteins of the RegIII family that recruited a C-type lectin fold to kill bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten G K Ghequire
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, University of Leuven, Heverlee-Leuven, Belgium
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18
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Bulgarelli D, Schlaeppi K, Spaepen S, Ver Loren van Themaat E, Schulze-Lefert P. Structure and functions of the bacterial microbiota of plants. Annu Rev Plant Biol 2013; 41:252-263. [PMID: 23373698 DOI: 10.1007/s002480000087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 470] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2000] [Accepted: 08/15/2000] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plants host distinct bacterial communities on and inside various plant organs, of which those associated with roots and the leaf surface are best characterized. The phylogenetic composition of these communities is defined by relatively few bacterial phyla, including Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. A synthesis of available data suggests a two-step selection process by which the bacterial microbiota of roots is differentiated from the surrounding soil biome. Rhizodeposition appears to fuel an initial substrate-driven community shift in the rhizosphere, which converges with host genotype-dependent fine-tuning of microbiota profiles in the selection of root endophyte assemblages. Substrate-driven selection also underlies the establishment of phyllosphere communities but takes place solely at the immediate leaf surface. Both the leaf and root microbiota contain bacteria that provide indirect pathogen protection, but root microbiota members appear to serve additional host functions through the acquisition of nutrients from soil for plant growth. Thus, the plant microbiota emerges as a fundamental trait that includes mutualism enabled through diverse biochemical mechanisms, as revealed by studies on plant growth-promoting and plant health-promoting bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Bulgarelli
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, D-50829 Cologne, Germany
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19
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Bulgarelli D, Schlaeppi K, Spaepen S, Ver Loren van Themaat E, Schulze-Lefert P. Structure and functions of the bacterial microbiota of plants. Annu Rev Plant Biol 2013; 64:807-38. [PMID: 23373698 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1358] [Impact Index Per Article: 123.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plants host distinct bacterial communities on and inside various plant organs, of which those associated with roots and the leaf surface are best characterized. The phylogenetic composition of these communities is defined by relatively few bacterial phyla, including Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. A synthesis of available data suggests a two-step selection process by which the bacterial microbiota of roots is differentiated from the surrounding soil biome. Rhizodeposition appears to fuel an initial substrate-driven community shift in the rhizosphere, which converges with host genotype-dependent fine-tuning of microbiota profiles in the selection of root endophyte assemblages. Substrate-driven selection also underlies the establishment of phyllosphere communities but takes place solely at the immediate leaf surface. Both the leaf and root microbiota contain bacteria that provide indirect pathogen protection, but root microbiota members appear to serve additional host functions through the acquisition of nutrients from soil for plant growth. Thus, the plant microbiota emerges as a fundamental trait that includes mutualism enabled through diverse biochemical mechanisms, as revealed by studies on plant growth-promoting and plant health-promoting bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Bulgarelli
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, D-50829 Cologne, Germany
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20
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Nicolay T, Lemoine L, Lievens E, Balzarini S, Vanderleyden J, Spaepen S. Probing the applicability of autotransporter based surface display with the EstA autotransporter of Pseudomonas stutzeri A15. Microb Cell Fact 2012; 11:158. [PMID: 23237539 PMCID: PMC3546941 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-11-158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Autotransporters represent a widespread family of secreted proteins in Gram-negative bacteria. Their seemingly easy secretion mechanism and modular structure make them interesting candidates for cell surface display of heterologous proteins. The most widely applied host organism for this purpose is Escherichia coli. Pseudomonas stutzeri A15 is an interesting candidate host for environmentally relevant biotechnological applications. With the recently characterized P. stutzeri A15 EstA autotransporter at hand, all tools for developing a surface display system for environmental use are available. More general, this system could serve as a case-study to test the broad applicability of autotransporter based surface display. Results Based on the P. stutzeri A15 EstA autotransporter β-domain, a surface display expression module was constructed for use in P. stutzeri A15. Proof of concept of this module was presented by successful surface display of the original EstA passenger domain, which retained its full esterase activity. Almost all of the tested heterologous passenger domains however were not exposed at the cell surface of P. stutzeri A15, as assessed by whole cell proteinase K treatment. Only for a beta-lactamase protein, cell surface display in P. stutzeri A15 was comparable to presentation of the original EstA passenger domain. Development of expression modules based on the full-length EstA autotransporter did not resolve these problems. Conclusions Since only one of the tested heterologous passenger proteins could be displayed at the cell surface of P. stutzeri A15 to a notable extent, our results indicate that the EstA autotransporter cannot be regarded as a broad spectrum cell surface display system in P. stutzeri A15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toon Nicolay
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001, Heverlee, Belgium
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21
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Van Puyvelde S, Cloots L, Engelen K, Das F, Marchal K, Vanderleyden J, Spaepen S. Transcriptome analysis of the rhizosphere bacterium Azospirillum brasilense reveals an extensive auxin response. Microb Ecol 2011; 61:723-728. [PMID: 21340736 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-011-9819-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The rhizosphere bacterium Azospirillum brasilense produces the auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) through the indole-3-pyruvate pathway. As we previously demonstrated that transcription of the indole-3-pyruvate decarboxylase (ipdC) gene is positively regulated by IAA, produced by A. brasilense itself or added exogenously, we performed a microarray analysis to study the overall effects of IAA on the transcriptome of A. brasilense. The transcriptomes of A. brasilense wild-type and the ipdC knockout mutant, both cultured in the absence and presence of exogenously added IAA, were compared.Interfering with the IAA biosynthesis/homeostasis in A. brasilense through inactivation of the ipdC gene or IAA addition results in much broader transcriptional changes than anticipated. Based on the multitude of changes observed by comparing the different transcriptomes, we can conclude that IAA is a signaling molecule in A. brasilense. It appears that the bacterium, when exposed to IAA, adapts itself to the plant rhizosphere, by changing its arsenal of transport proteins and cell surface proteins. A striking example of adaptation to IAA exposure, as happens in the rhizosphere, is the upregulation of a type VI secretion system (T6SS) in the presence of IAA. The T6SS is described as specifically involved in bacterium-eukaryotic host interactions. Additionally, many transcription factors show an altered regulation as well, indicating that the regulatory machinery of the bacterium is changing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Van Puyvelde
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, K.U.Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20-Bus 2460, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
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Abstract
Microbial synthesis of the phytohormone auxin has been known for a long time. This property is best documented for bacteria that interact with plants because bacterial auxin can cause interference with the many plant developmental processes regulated by auxin. Auxin biosynthesis in bacteria can occur via multiple pathways as has been observed in plants. There is also increasing evidence that indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), the major naturally occurring auxin, is a signaling molecule in microorganisms because IAA affects gene expression in some microorganisms. Therefore, IAA can act as a reciprocal signaling molecule in microbe-plant interactions. Interest in microbial synthesis of auxin is also increasing in yet another recently discovered property of auxin in Arabidopsis. Down-regulation of auxin signaling is part of the plant defense system against phytopathogenic bacteria. Exogenous application of auxin, e.g., produced by the pathogen, enhances susceptibility to the bacterial pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn Spaepen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
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Baudoin E, Couillerot O, Spaepen S, Moënne-Loccoz Y, Nazaret S. Applicability of the 16S-23S rDNA internal spacer for PCR detection of the phytostimulatory PGPR inoculant Azospirillum lipoferum CRT1 in field soil. J Appl Microbiol 2010; 108:25-38. [PMID: 19583800 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04393.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To assess the applicability of the 16S-23S rDNA internal spacer regions (ISR) as targets for PCR detection of Azospirillum ssp. and the phytostimulatory plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria seed inoculant Azospirillum lipoferum CRT1 in soil. METHODS AND RESULTS Primer sets were designed after sequence analysis of the ISR of A. lipoferum CRT1 and Azospirillum brasilense Sp245. The primers fAZO/rAZO targeting the Azospirillum genus successfully yielded PCR amplicons (400-550 bp) from Azospirillum strains but also from certain non-Azospirillum strains in vitro, therefore they were not appropriate to monitor indigenous Azospirillum soil populations. The primers fCRT1/rCRT1 targeting A. lipoferum CRT1 generated a single 249-bp PCR product but could also amplify other strains from the same species. However, with DNA extracts from the rhizosphere of field-grown maize, both fAZO/rAZO and fCRT1/rCRT1 primer sets could be used to evidence strain CRT1 in inoculated plants by nested PCR, after a first ISR amplification with universal ribosomal primers. In soil, a 7-log dynamic range of detection (10(2)-10(8) CFU g(-1) soil) was obtained. CONCLUSIONS The PCR primers targeting 16S-23S rDNA ISR sequences enabled detection of the inoculant A. lipoferum CRT1 in field soil. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Convenient methods to monitor Azospirillum phytostimulators in the soil are lacking. The PCR protocols designed based on ISR sequences will be useful for detection of the crop inoculant A. lipoferum CRT1 under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Baudoin
- IRD, UMR 113, LSTM, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA-A82/J, 34398 Montpellier cedex5, France
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Baudoin E, Lerner A, Mirza MS, El Zemrany H, Prigent-Combaret C, Jurkevich E, Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J, Nazaret S, Okon Y, Moënne-Loccoz Y. Effects of Azospirillum brasilense with genetically modified auxin biosynthesis gene ipdC upon the diversity of the indigenous microbiota of the wheat rhizosphere. Res Microbiol 2010; 161:219-26. [PMID: 20138146 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2010.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2009] [Revised: 01/05/2010] [Accepted: 01/07/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The phytostimulatory properties of Azospirillum inoculants, which entail production of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), can be enhanced by genetic means. However, it is not known whether this could affect their interactions with indigenous soil microbes. Here, wheat seeds were inoculated with the wild-type strain Azospirillum brasilense Sp245 or one of three genetically modified (GM) derivatives and grown for one month. The GM derivatives contained a plasmid vector harboring the indole-3-pyruvate/phenylpyruvate decarboxylase gene ipdC (IAA production) controlled either by the constitutive promoter PnptII or the root exudate-responsive promoter PsbpA, or by an empty vector (GM control). All inoculants displayed equal rhizosphere population densities. Only inoculation with either ipdC construct increased shoot biomass compared with the non-inoculated control. At one month after inoculation, automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA) revealed that the effect of the PsbpA construct on bacterial community structure differed from that of the GM control, which was confirmed by 16S rDNA-based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). The fungal community was sensitive to inoculation with the PsbpA construct and especially the GM control, based on ARISA data. Overall, fungal and bacterial communities displayed distinct responses to inoculation of GM A. brasilense phytostimulators, whose effects could differ from those of the wild-type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezékiel Baudoin
- Université de Lyon, F-69622 Lyon, France; Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
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Van Dommelen A, Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J. Identification of the glutamine synthetase adenylyltransferase of Azospirillum brasilense. Res Microbiol 2009; 160:205-12. [PMID: 19366628 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2009.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2008] [Revised: 03/28/2009] [Accepted: 03/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glutamine synthetase, a key enzyme in nitrogen metabolism of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, is strictly regulated. One means of regulation is the modulation of activity through adenylylation catalyzed by adenylyltransferases. Using PCR primers based on conserved sequences in glutamine synthetase adenylyltransferases, we amplified part of the glnE gene of Azospirillum brasilense Sp7. The complete glnE sequence of A. brasilense Sp245 was retrieved from the draft genome sequence of this organism (http://genomics.ornl.gov/research/azo/). Adenylyltransferase is a bifunctional enzyme consisting of an N-terminal domain responsible for deadenylylation activity and a C-terminal domain responsible for adenylylation activity. Both domains are partially homologous to each other. Residues important for catalytic activity were present in the deduced amino acid sequence of the A. brasilense Sp245 glnE sequence. A glnE mutant was constructed in A. brasilense Sp7 by inserting a kanamycin resistance cassette between the two active domains of the enzyme. The resulting mutant was unable to adenylylate the glutamine synthetase enzyme and was impaired in growth when shifted from nitrogen-poor to nitrogen-rich medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Van Dommelen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, K.U. Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium.
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De Meulenaere E, Asselberghs I, de Wergifosse M, Botek E, Spaepen S, Champagne B, Vanderleyden J, Clays K. Second-order nonlinear optical properties of fluorescent proteins for second-harmonic imaging. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1039/b907789h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abstract
In the rhizosphere and their interaction with plants rhizobia encounter many different plant compounds, including phytohormones like auxins. Moreover, some rhizobial strains are capable of producing the auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). However, the role of IAA for the bacterial partner in the legume-Rhizobium symbiosis is not known. To identify the effect of IAA on rhizobial gene expression, a transposon (mTn5gusA-oriV) mutant library of Rhizobium etli, enriched for mutants that show differential gene expression under microaerobiosis and/or addition of nodule extracts as compared with control conditions, was screened for altered gene expression upon IAA addition. Four genes were found to be regulated by IAA. These genes appear to be involved in plant signal processing, motility or attachment to plant roots, clearly demonstrating a distinct role for IAA in legume-Rhizobium interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn Spaepen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics and INPAC, K.U. Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
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Thirunavukkarasu N, Mishra MN, Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J, Gross CA, Tripathi AK. An extra-cytoplasmic function sigma factor and anti-sigma factor control carotenoid biosynthesis in Azospirillum brasilense. Microbiology (Reading) 2008; 154:2096-2105. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2008/016428-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mukti Nath Mishra
- School of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India
| | - Stijn Spaepen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Jos Vanderleyden
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Carol A. Gross
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158-2517, USA
| | - Anil K. Tripathi
- School of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India
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Versées W, Spaepen S, Wood MDH, Leeper FJ, Vanderleyden J, Steyaert J. Molecular Mechanism of Allosteric Substrate Activation in a Thiamine Diphosphate-dependent Decarboxylase. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:35269-78. [PMID: 17905741 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m706048200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Thiamine diphosphate-dependent enzymes are involved in a wide variety of metabolic pathways. The molecular mechanism behind active site communication and substrate activation, observed in some of these enzymes, has since long been an area of debate. Here, we report the crystal structures of a phenylpyruvate decarboxylase in complex with its substrates and a covalent reaction intermediate analogue. These structures reveal the regulatory site and unveil the mechanism of allosteric substrate activation. This signal transduction relies on quaternary structure reorganizations, domain rotations, and a pathway of local conformational changes that are relayed from the regulatory site to the active site. The current findings thus uncover the molecular mechanism by which the binding of a substrate in the regulatory site is linked to the mounting of the catalytic machinery in the active site in this thiamine diphosphate-dependent enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wim Versées
- Department of Ultrastructure, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
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Spaepen S, Versées W, Gocke D, Pohl M, Steyaert J, Vanderleyden J. Characterization of phenylpyruvate decarboxylase, involved in auxin production of Azospirillum brasilense. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:7626-33. [PMID: 17766418 PMCID: PMC2168738 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00830-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Azospirillum brasilense belongs to the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria with direct growth promotion through the production of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). A key gene in the production of IAA, annotated as indole-3-pyruvate decarboxylase (ipdC), has been isolated from A. brasilense, and its regulation was reported previously (A. Vande Broek, P. Gysegom, O. Ona, N. Hendrickx, E. Prinsen, J. Van Impe, and J. Vanderleyden, Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 18:311-323, 2005). An ipdC-knockout mutant was found to produce only 10% (wt/vol) of the wild-type IAA production level. In this study, the encoded enzyme is characterized via a biochemical and phylogenetic analysis. Therefore, the recombinant enzyme was expressed and purified via heterologous overexpression in Escherichia coli and subsequent affinity chromatography. The molecular mass of the holoenzyme was determined by size-exclusion chromatography, suggesting a tetrameric structure, which is typical for 2-keto acid decarboxylases. The enzyme shows the highest kcat value for phenylpyruvate. Comparing values for the specificity constant kcat/Km, indole-3-pyruvate is converted 10-fold less efficiently, while no activity could be detected with benzoylformate. The enzyme shows pronounced substrate activation with indole-3-pyruvate and some other aromatic substrates, while for phenylpyruvate it appears to obey classical Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Based on these data, we propose a reclassification of the ipdC gene product of A. brasilense as a phenylpyruvate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.43).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn Spaepen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, K.U. Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
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Abstract
Diverse bacterial species possess the ability to produce the auxin phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Different biosynthesis pathways have been identified and redundancy for IAA biosynthesis is widespread among plant-associated bacteria. Interactions between IAA-producing bacteria and plants lead to diverse outcomes on the plant side, varying from pathogenesis to phyto-stimulation. Reviewing the role of bacterial IAA in different microorganism-plant interactions highlights the fact that bacteria use this phytohormone to interact with plants as part of their colonization strategy, including phyto-stimulation and circumvention of basal plant defense mechanisms. Moreover, several recent reports indicate that IAA can also be a signaling molecule in bacteria and therefore can have a direct effect on bacterial physiology. This review discusses past and recent data, and emerging views on IAA, a well-known phytohormone, as a microbial metabolic and signaling molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn Spaepen
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Heverlee, Belgium
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Abstract
Phenylpyruvate decarboxylase (PPDC) of Azospirillum brasilense, involved in the biosynthesis of the plant hormone indole-3-acetic acid and the antimicrobial compound phenylacetic acid, is a thiamine diphosphate-dependent enzyme that catalyses the nonoxidative decarboxylation of indole- and phenylpyruvate. Analogous to yeast pyruvate decarboxylases, PPDC is subject to allosteric substrate activation, showing sigmoidal v versus [S] plots. The present paper reports the crystal structure of this enzyme determined at 1.5 A resolution. The subunit architecture of PPDC is characteristic for other members of the pyruvate oxidase family, with each subunit consisting of three domains with an open alpha/beta topology. An active site loop, bearing the catalytic residues His112 and His113, could not be modelled due to flexibility. The biological tetramer is best described as an asymmetric dimer of dimers. A cysteine residue that has been suggested as the site for regulatory substrate binding in yeast pyruvate decarboxylase is not conserved, requiring a different mechanism for allosteric substrate activation in PPDC. Only minor changes occur in the interactions with the cofactors, thiamine diphosphate and Mg2+, compared to pyruvate decarboxylase. A greater diversity is observed in the substrate binding pocket accounting for the difference in substrate specificity. Moreover, a catalytically important glutamate residue conserved in nearly all decarboxylases is replaced by a leucine in PPDC. The consequences of these differences in terms of the catalytic and regulatory mechanism of PPDC are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wim Versées
- Department of Ultrastructure, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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