1
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Madronich S, Bernhard GH, Neale PJ, Heikkilä A, Andersen MPS, Andrady AL, Aucamp PJ, Bais AF, Banaszak AT, Barnes PJ, Bornman JF, Bruckman LS, Busquets R, Chiodo G, Häder DP, Hanson ML, Hylander S, Jansen MAK, Lingham G, Lucas RM, Calderon RM, Olsen C, Ossola R, Pandey KK, Petropavlovskikh I, Revell LE, Rhodes LE, Robinson SA, Robson TM, Rose KC, Schikowski T, Solomon KR, Sulzberger B, Wallington TJ, Wang QW, Wängberg SÅ, White CC, Wilson SR, Zhu L, Neale RE. Continuing benefits of the Montreal Protocol and protection of the stratospheric ozone layer for human health and the environment. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2024:10.1007/s43630-024-00577-8. [PMID: 38763938 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-024-00577-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
The protection of Earth's stratospheric ozone (O3) is an ongoing process under the auspices of the universally ratified Montreal Protocol and its Amendments and adjustments. A critical part of this process is the assessment of the environmental issues related to changes in O3. The United Nations Environment Programme's Environmental Effects Assessment Panel provides annual scientific evaluations of some of the key issues arising in the recent collective knowledge base. This current update includes a comprehensive assessment of the incidence rates of skin cancer, cataract and other skin and eye diseases observed worldwide; the effects of UV radiation on tropospheric oxidants, and air and water quality; trends in breakdown products of fluorinated chemicals and recent information of their toxicity; and recent technological innovations of building materials for greater resistance to UV radiation. These issues span a wide range of topics, including both harmful and beneficial effects of exposure to UV radiation, and complex interactions with climate change. While the Montreal Protocol has succeeded in preventing large reductions in stratospheric O3, future changes may occur due to a number of natural and anthropogenic factors. Thus, frequent assessments of potential environmental impacts are essential to ensure that policies remain based on the best available scientific knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Madronich
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA.
- Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, USDA UV-B Monitoring and Research Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - G H Bernhard
- Biospherical Instruments Inc, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - P J Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
| | - A Heikkilä
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - M P Sulbæk Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - A L Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University , Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - P J Aucamp
- Ptersa Environmental Consultants, Faerie Glen, South Africa
| | - A F Bais
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Department of Physics, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - A T Banaszak
- Unidad Académica de Sistemas Arrecifales, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, Mexico
| | - P J Barnes
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environment Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - J F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
| | - L S Bruckman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - R Busquets
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kingston University London, Kingston Upon Thames, UK
| | - G Chiodo
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - D-P Häder
- Friedrich-Alexander University, Möhrendorf, Germany
| | - M L Hanson
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - S Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - M A K Jansen
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College, Cork, Ireland
| | - G Lingham
- Centre For Ophthalmology and Visual Science (Incorporating Lion's Eye Institute), University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
- Centre for Eye Research Ireland, Environmental, Sustainability and Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - R M Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, College of Health and Medicine, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - R Mackenzie Calderon
- Cape Horn International Center, Puerto Williams, Chile
- Millennium Institute Biodiversity of Antarctic and Subantarctic Ecosystems BASE, Santiago, Chile
- Centro Universitario Cabo de Hornos, Universidad de Magallanes, O'Higgins 310, Puerto Williams, Chile
| | - C Olsen
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - R Ossola
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - K K Pandey
- Indian Academy of Wood Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - I Petropavlovskikh
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado , Boulder, CO, USA
- NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - L E Revell
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - L E Rhodes
- Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
- Dermatology Centre, Salford Royal Hospital, Greater Manchester, UK
| | - S A Robinson
- Securing Antarctica's Environmental Future, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - T M Robson
- UK National School of Forestry, University of Cumbria, Ambleside Campus, UK
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - K C Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - T Schikowski
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - K R Solomon
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - B Sulzberger
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - T J Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Q-W Wang
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China
| | - S-Å Wängberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - S R Wilson
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - L Zhu
- State Key Lab for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| | - R E Neale
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
- School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
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Cao Y, Zhao H, Zhang S, Wu X, Anderson JE, Shen W, Wallington TJ, Wu Y. Impacts of ethanol blended fuels and cold temperature on VOC emissions from gasoline vehicles in China. Environ Pollut 2024; 348:123869. [PMID: 38548150 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
The Chinese central government has initiated pilot projects to promote the adoption of gasoline containing 10%v ethanol (E10). Vehicle emissions using ethanol blended fuels require investigation to estimate the environmental impacts of the initiative. Five fuel formulations were created using two blending methods (splash blending and match blending) to evaluate the impacts of formulations on speciated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from exhaust emissions. Seven in-use vehicles covering China 4 to China 6 emission standards were recruited. Vehicle tests were conducted using the Worldwide Harmonized Test Cycle (WLTC) in a temperature-controlled chamber at 23 °C and -7 °C. Splash blended E10 fuels led to significant reductions in VOC emissions by 12%-75%. E10 fuels had a better performance of reducing VOC emissions in older model vehicles than in newer model vehicles. These results suggested that E10 fuel could be an option to mitigate the VOC emissions. Although replacing methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) with ethanol in regular gasoline had no significant effects on VOC emissions, the replacement led to lower aromatic emissions by 40%-60%. Alkanes and aromatics dominated approximately 90% of VOC emissions for all vehicle-fuel combinations. Cold temperature increased VOC emissions significantly, by 3-26 folds for all vehicle/fuel combinations at -7 °C. Aromatic emissions were increased by cold temperature, from 2 to 26 mg/km at 23 °C to 33-238 mg/km at -7 °C. OVOC emissions were not significantly affected by E10 fuel or cold temperature. The ozone formation potential (OFP) and secondary organic aerosol formation potential (SOAFP) of splash blended E10 fuels decreased by up to 76% and 81%, respectively, compared with those of E0 fuels. The results are useful to update VOC emission profiles of Chinese vehicles using ethanol blended gasoline and under low-temperature conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihuan Cao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Haiguang Zhao
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; Vehicle Emission Control Center of Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Shaojun Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Xian Wu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Vehicle Emission Control and Simulation, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; Vehicle Emission Control Center of Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China.
| | - James E Anderson
- Ford Motor Company, Research & Advanced Engineering, Dearborn, MI, 48121, USA
| | - Wei Shen
- Ford Motor Company, Research & Advanced Engineering, Dearborn, MI, 48121, USA
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Ye Wu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing, 100084, China.
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Jansen MAK, Andrady AL, Barnes PW, Busquets R, Revell LE, Bornman JF, Aucamp PJ, Bais AF, Banaszak AT, Bernhard GH, Bruckman LS, Häder DP, Hanson ML, Heikkilä AM, Hylander S, Lucas RM, Mackenzie R, Madronich S, Neale PJ, Neale RE, Olsen CM, Ossola R, Pandey KK, Petropavlovskikh I, Robinson SA, Robson TM, Rose KC, Solomon KR, Sulbæk Andersen MP, Sulzberger B, Wallington TJ, Wang QW, Wängberg SÅ, White CC, Young AR, Zepp RG, Zhu L. Environmental plastics in the context of UV radiation, climate change, and the Montreal Protocol. Glob Chang Biol 2024; 30:e17279. [PMID: 38619007 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.17279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
There are close links between solar UV radiation, climate change, and plastic pollution. UV-driven weathering is a key process leading to the degradation of plastics in the environment but also the formation of potentially harmful plastic fragments such as micro- and nanoplastic particles. Estimates of the environmental persistence of plastic pollution, and the formation of fragments, will need to take in account plastic dispersal around the globe, as well as projected UV radiation levels and climate change factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel A K Jansen
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Environmental Research Institute, University College, Cork, Ireland
| | - Anthony L Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Paul W Barnes
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environment Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Rosa Busquets
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kingston University London, Kingston upon Thames, UK
| | - Laura E Revell
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Janet F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | | | - Alkiviadis F Bais
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anastazia T Banaszak
- Unidad Académica Sistemas Arrecifales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, Mexico
| | | | - Laura S Bruckman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Mark L Hanson
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | | | - Samuel Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Robyn M Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, College of Health and Medicine, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Roy Mackenzie
- Centro Universitario Cabo de Hornos, Universidad de Magallanes, Puerto Williams, Chile
- Millenium Institute Biodiversity of Antarctic and Subantarctic Ecosystems BASE, Santiago, Chile
- Cape Horn International Center CHIC, Puerto Williams, Chile
| | - Sasha Madronich
- UV-B Monitoring and Research Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Patrick J Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, Maryland, USA
| | - Rachel E Neale
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Catherine M Olsen
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rachele Ossola
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Irina Petropavlovskikh
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
- Ozone and Water Vapor Division, NOAA ESRL Global Monitoring Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Sharon A Robinson
- Securing Antarctica's Environmental Future, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
| | - T Matthew Robson
- UK National School of Forestry, University of Cumbria, Carlisle, UK
- Organismal & Evolutionary Ecology, Viikki Plant Science Centre, Faculty of Biological & Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kevin C Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Keith R Solomon
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mads P Sulbæk Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, Northridge, California, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Barbara Sulzberger
- Retired from Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Qing-Wei Wang
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China
| | - Sten-Åke Wängberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Richard G Zepp
- ORD/CEMM, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Liping Zhu
- State Key Lab for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
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Jansen MAK, Andrady AL, Bornman JF, Aucamp PJ, Bais AF, Banaszak AT, Barnes PW, Bernhard GH, Bruckman LS, Busquets R, Häder DP, Hanson ML, Heikkilä AM, Hylander S, Lucas RM, Mackenzie R, Madronich S, Neale PJ, Neale RE, Olsen CM, Ossola R, Pandey KK, Petropavlovskikh I, Revell LE, Robinson SA, Robson TM, Rose KC, Solomon KR, Andersen MPS, Sulzberger B, Wallington TJ, Wang QW, Wängberg SÅ, White CC, Young AR, Zepp RG, Zhu L. Plastics in the environment in the context of UV radiation, climate change and the Montreal Protocol: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2023. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2024; 23:629-650. [PMID: 38512633 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-024-00552-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
This Assessment Update by the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) considers the interactive effects of solar UV radiation, global warming, and other weathering factors on plastics. The Assessment illustrates the significance of solar UV radiation in decreasing the durability of plastic materials, degradation of plastic debris, formation of micro- and nanoplastic particles and accompanying leaching of potential toxic compounds. Micro- and nanoplastics have been found in all ecosystems, the atmosphere, and in humans. While the potential biological risks are not yet well-established, the widespread and increasing occurrence of plastic pollution is reason for continuing research and monitoring. Plastic debris persists after its intended life in soils, water bodies and the atmosphere as well as in living organisms. To counteract accumulation of plastics in the environment, the lifetime of novel plastics or plastic alternatives should better match the functional life of products, with eventual breakdown releasing harmless substances to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel A K Jansen
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Anthony L Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Janet F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
| | | | - Alkiviadis F Bais
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anastazia T Banaszak
- Unidad Académica Sistemas Arrecifales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, Mexico
| | - Paul W Barnes
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environment Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | | | - Laura S Bruckman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Rosa Busquets
- Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kingston University London, Kingston Upon Thames, UK
| | | | - Mark L Hanson
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | | | - Samuel Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Robyn M Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, College of Health and Medicine, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Roy Mackenzie
- Centro Universitario Cabo de Hornos, Universidad de Magallanes, Puerto Williams, Chile
- Millennium Institute Biodiversity of Antarctic and Subantarctic Ecosystems BASE, Santiago, Chile
- Cape Horn International Center CHIC, Puerto Williams, Chile
| | - Sasha Madronich
- UV-B Monitoring and Research Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Patrick J Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
| | - Rachel E Neale
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
- School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Catherine M Olsen
- Population Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Rachele Ossola
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | | | - Irina Petropavlovskikh
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Ozone and Water Vapor Division, NOAA ESRL Global Monitoring Laboratory, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Laura E Revell
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Sharon A Robinson
- Securing Antarctica's Environmental Future, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - T Matthew Robson
- UK National School of Forestry, University of Cumbria, Ambleside Campus, Ambleside, UK
- Organismal & Evolutionary Ecology, Viikki Plant Science Centre, Faculty of Biological & Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kevin C Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - Keith R Solomon
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Mads P Sulbæk Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, Northridge, CA, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Barbara Sulzberger
- Retired From Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dubendorf, Switzerland
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Qing-Wei Wang
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China
| | - Sten-Åke Wängberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Richard G Zepp
- ORD/CEMM, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Liping Zhu
- State Key Lab for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
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Dolan RH, Wallington TJ, Anderson JE. Large Decreases in Tailpipe Criteria Pollutant Emissions from the U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet Expected in 2020-2040. Environ Sci Technol 2024. [PMID: 38323898 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c04554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
The U.S. EPA MOVES3 model was used to assess the impact of the large-scale introduction of electric vehicles on emissions of criteria pollutants (CO, hydrocarbons [HC], NOx, and particulate matter [PM]) and CO2 from the U.S. light-duty vehicle fleet. Large reductions in emissions of these criteria pollutants occurred in 2000-2020. These trends are expected to continue through 2040 driven by turnover of the conventional fleet with old vehicles being replaced by battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and by new internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) with modern emission control systems. Without the introduction of BEVs, the absolute emissions of CO, NOx, HC, and PM2.5 from the U.S. light-duty vehicle fleet are expected to decrease by approximately 61, 88, 55, and 20% from 2020 to 2040. Introduction of BEVs with market share increasing linearly to 100% in 2040 provides additional benefits, which, combined with ICEV fleet turnover, would lead to decreases of absolute emissions of CO, NOx, HC, and PM2.5 of approximately 77, 94, 71, and 37% from 2020 to 2040. Reductions in CO2 emissions follow a similar pattern. Large decreases in criteria pollutant and CO2 emissions from light duty vehicles lie ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael H Dolan
- Ford Motor Company, Research & Advanced Engineering, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48019, United States
| | - James E Anderson
- Ford Motor Company, Research & Advanced Engineering, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
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6
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Kim HC, Lee S, Wallington TJ. Cradle-to-Gate and Use-Phase Carbon Footprint of a Commercial Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57:11834-11842. [PMID: 37515579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Increased use of vehicle electrification to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the need for an accurate and comprehensive assessment of the carbon footprint of traction batteries. Unfortunately, there are few lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of commercial lithium-ion batteries available in the literature, and those that are available focus on the cradle-to-gate stage, often with little or no consideration of the use phase. To address this shortfall, we report both cradle-to-gate and use-phase GHG emissions for the 2020 Model Year Ford Explorer plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) NMC622 battery. Using primary industry data for battery design and manufacturing, cradle-to-gate emissions are estimated to be 1.38 t CO2e (101 kg CO2e/kWh), with 78% from materials and parts production and 22% from cell, module, and pack manufacturing. Using mass-induced energy consumptions of 0.6 and 1.6 kWh/(100 km 100 kg) for charge-depleting and -sustaining modes, respectively, the mass-induced use-phase emission of the battery is estimated to be 1.04 t CO2e. We show that battery emissions during the cradle-to-gate and use phases are comparable and that both phases need to be considered. A holistic and harmonized LCA approach that includes battery use is required to reduce carbon footprint uncertainties and guide future battery designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Sunghoon Lee
- ESG Impact Team, LG Energy Solution, Seoul 07335, Republic of Korea
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
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7
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Dong Q, Liang S, Li J, Kim HC, Shen W, Wallington TJ. Cost, energy, and carbon footprint benefits of second-life electric vehicle battery use. iScience 2023; 26:107195. [PMID: 37456844 PMCID: PMC10339184 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The manuscript reviews the research on economic and environmental benefits of second-life electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) use for energy storage in households, utilities, and EV charging stations. Economic benefits depend heavily on electricity costs, battery costs, and battery performance; carbon benefits depend largely on the electricity mix charging the batteries. Environmental performance is greatest when used to store renewable energy such as wind and solar power. Inconsistent system boundaries make it challenging to compare the life cycle carbon footprint across different studies. The future growth of second-life EVB utilization faces several challenges, including the chemical and electrical properties and states of health of retired EVBs, the rapidly decreasing costs of new batteries, and different operational requirements. Measures to mitigate these challenges include the development of efficient diagnostic technologies, comprehensive test standards, and battery designs suitable for remanufacturing. Further research is needed based on real-world operational data and harmonized approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyin Dong
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuang Liang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jinhui Li
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research & Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48121, USA
| | - Wei Shen
- Research & Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Timothy J. Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Sulbaek Andersen MP, Volkova A, Hass SA, Lengkong JW, Hovanessian D, Sølling TI, Wallington TJ, Nielsen OJ. Correction: Atmospheric chemistry of ( Z)- and ( E)-1,2-dichloroethene: kinetics and mechanisms of the reactions with Cl atoms, OH radicals, and O 3. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:10185. [PMID: 36950873 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp90083e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
Abstract
Correction for 'Atmospheric chemistry of (Z)- and (E)-1,2-dichloroethene: kinetics and mechanisms of the reactions with Cl atoms, OH radicals, and O3' by Mads P. Sulbaek Andersen et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2022, 24, 7356-7373, https://doi.org/10.1039/D1CP04877E.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mads P Sulbaek Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Aleksandra Volkova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
| | - Sofie A Hass
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jonathan W Lengkong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
| | - Dvien Hovanessian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
| | - Theis I Sølling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Integrative Petroleum Research (CIPR), College of Petroleum Engineering and Geoscience, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research & Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48121-2053, USA
| | - Ole J Nielsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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9
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Shaw DG, Bruno I, Chalk S, Hefter G, Hibbert DB, Hutchinson RA, Magalhães MCF, Magee J, McEwen LR, Rumble J, Russell GT, Waghorne E, Walczyk T, Wallington TJ. Chemical data evaluation: general considerations and approaches for IUPAC projects and the chemistry community (IUPAC Technical Report). PURE APPL CHEM 2023; 95:10.1515/pac-2022-0802. [PMID: 37964805 PMCID: PMC10644293 DOI: 10.1515/pac-2022-0802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has a long tradition of supporting the compilation of chemical data and their evaluation through direct projects, nomenclature and terminology work, and partnerships with international scientific bodies, government agencies and other organizations. The IUPAC Interdivisional Subcommittee on Critical Evaluation of Data (ISCED) has been established to provide guidance on issues related to the evaluation of chemical data. In this first report we define the general principles of the evaluation of scientific data and describe best practices and approaches to data evaluation in chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G. Shaw
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska, Fairbanks 99775-7220, USA
| | - Ian Bruno
- Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre, 12 Union Road, Cambridge CB2 1EZ, UK
| | - Stuart Chalk
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Glenn Hefter
- Chemistry Department, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
| | | | - Robin A. Hutchinson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - M. Clara F. Magalhães
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney, Australia; LEAF – Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food Research Center, Associated Laboratory TERRA, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joseph Magee
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, Thermodynamics Research Center, Boulder, CO 80305-3328 USA
| | - Leah R. McEwen
- Physical Sciences Library, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Gregory T. Russell
- School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| | - Earle Waghorne
- School of Chemistry, University College Dublin, Dublin, D04 V1W8, Ireland
| | - Thomas Walczyk
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 117543 Singapore
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10
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Kemp NJ, Li L, Keoleian GA, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, De Kleine R. Carbon Footprint of Alternative Grocery Shopping and Transportation Options from Retail Distribution Centers to Customer. Environ Sci Technol 2022; 56:11798-11806. [PMID: 35930734 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the growth of e-commerce and automated warehouses, vehicles, and robots and has created new options for grocery supply chains. We report and compare the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for a 36-item grocery basket transported along 72 unique paths from a centralized warehouse to the customer, including impacts of micro-fulfillment centers, refrigeration, vehicle automation, and last-mile transportation. Our base case is in-store shopping with last-mile transportation using an internal combustion engine (ICE) SUV (6.0 kg CO2e). The results indicate that emissions reductions could be achieved by e-commerce with micro-fulfillment centers (16-54%), customer vehicle electrification (18-42%), or grocery delivery (22-65%) compared to the base case. In-store shopping with an ICE pick-up truck has the highest emissions of all paths investigated (6.9 kg CO2e) while delivery using a sidewalk automated robot has the least (1.0 kg CO2e). Shopping frequency is an important factor for households to consider, e.g. halving shopping frequency can reduce GHG emissions by 44%. Trip chaining also offers an opportunity to reduce emissions with approximately 50% savings compared to the base case. Opportunities for grocers and households to reduce grocery supply chain carbon footprints are identified and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Kemp
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Luyao Li
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
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11
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Sulbaek Andersen MP, Volkova A, Hass SA, Lengkong JW, Hovanessian D, Sølling TI, Wallington TJ, Nielsen OJ. Atmospheric chemistry of ( Z)- and ( E)-1,2-dichloroethene: kinetics and mechanisms of the reactions with Cl atoms, OH radicals, and O 3. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:7356-7373. [PMID: 35266471 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp04877e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Smog chambers interfaced with in situ FT-IR detection were used to investigate the kinetics and mechanisms of the Cl atom, OH radical, and O3 initiated oxidation of (Z)- and (E)-1,2-dichloroethene (CHClCHCl) under atmospheric conditions. Relative and absolute rate methods were used to measure k(Cl + (Z)-CHClCHCl) = (8.80 ± 1.75) × 10-11, k(Cl + (E)-CHClCHCl) = (8.51 ± 1.69) × 10-11, k(OH + (Z)-CHClCHCl) = (2.02 ± 0.43) × 10-12, k(OH + (E)-CHClCHCl) = (1.94 ± 0.43) × 10-12, k(O3 + (Z)-CHClCHCl) = (4.50 ± 0.45) × 10-21, and k(O3 + (E)-CHClCHCl) = (1.02 ± 0.10) × 10-19 cm3 molecule-1 s-1 in 700 Torr of N2/air diluent at 298 ± 2 K. Pressure dependencies for the Cl atom reaction kinetics were observed for both isomers, consistent with isomerization occurring via Cl atom elimination from the chemically activated CHCl-CHCl-Cl adduct. The observed products from Cl initiated oxidation were HC(O)Cl (117-133%), CHCl2CHO (29-30%), and the corresponding CHClCHCl isomer (11-20%). OH radical initiated oxidation gives HC(O)Cl as a major product. For reaction of OH with (E)-CHClCHCl, (Z)-CHClCHCl was also observed as a product. A significant chlorine atom elimination channel was observed experimentally (HCl yield) and supported by computational results. Photochemical ozone creation potentials of 12 and 11 were estimated for (Z)- and (E)-CHClCHCl, respectively. Finally, an empirical kinetic relationship is explored for the addition of OH radicals or Cl atoms to small alkenes. The results are discussed in the context of the atmospheric chemistry of (Z)- and (E)-CHClCHCl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mads P Sulbaek Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Aleksandra Volkova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
| | - Sofie A Hass
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jonathan W Lengkong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
| | - Dvien Hovanessian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
| | - Theis I Sølling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Integrative Petroleum Research, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research & Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48121-2053, USA
| | - Ole J Nielsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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12
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Abstract
We argue that there is a need for a more precise of PFAS in a way that avoids including compounds with single CF3-, -CF2-, or CF- groups and excludes TFA and compounds that degrade to just give TFA. An example that meets this need is the definition by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency of PFAS as "per- and polyfluorinated substances that structurally contain the unit R-(CF2)-C(F)(R1)R2. Both the CF2 and CF moieties are saturated carbons and none of the R groups (R, R1, or R2) can be hydrogen". Adoption of this definition, or one like it, would place future technical and regulatory discussions of the environmental impacts of organo-fluorine compounds on a sounder technical footing by focusing PFAS discussions and regulation on long-chain perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids and perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Wallington
- Research & Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, Mail Drop RIC-2122, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, USA.
| | - M P Sulbaek Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA
| | - O J Nielsen
- Copenhagen Center for Atmospheric Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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13
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Abstract
Abstract
Henry’s law states that the abundance of a volatile solute dissolved in a liquid is proportional to its abundance in the gas phase. It applies at equilibrium and in the limit of infinite dilution of the solute. For historical reasons, numerous different definitions, names, and symbols are used in the literature to express the proportionality coefficient, denoted the “Henry’s law constant”. Here, a consistent set of recommendations is presented. An important distinction is made between two new recommended reciprocal quantities: “Henry’s law solubility constant” (H
s) and “Henry’s law volatility constant” (H
v). Eight recommended variants of H
s and H
v are described and relations among them presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolf Sander
- Atmospheric Chemistry Department , Max-Planck Institute of Chemistry , Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, 55128 Mainz , Germany
| | - William E. Acree
- Department of Chemistry , University of North Texas , Denton , TX , USA
| | - Alex De Visscher
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering , Concordia University , 1455 De Maisonneuve Blvd. W., EV 2.285 , Montreal , QC H3G 1M8 , Canada
| | - Stephen E. Schwartz
- Climate and Environmental Sciences Department , Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton , NY 11973 , USA
| | - Timothy J. Wallington
- Ford Motor Company, Research and Advanced Engineering , Mail Drop RIC-2122 , Dearborn , MI 48121-2053 , USA
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14
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Li L, He X, Keoleian GA, Kim HC, De Kleine R, Wallington TJ, Kemp NJ. Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Last-Mile Parcel Delivery by Automated Vehicles and Robots. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:11360-11367. [PMID: 34328327 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c08213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Increased E-commerce and demand for contactless delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic have fueled interest in robotic package delivery. We evaluate life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for automated suburban ground delivery systems consisting of a vehicle (last-mile) and a robot (final-50-feet). Small and large cargo vans (125 and 350 cubic feet; V125 and V350) with an internal combustion engine (ICEV) and battery electric (BEV) powertrains were assessed for three delivery scenarios: (i) conventional, human-driven vehicle with human delivery; (ii) partially automated, human-driven vehicle with robot delivery; and (iii) fully automated, connected automated vehicle (CAV) with robot delivery. The robot's contribution to life cycle GHG emissions is small (2-6%). Compared to the conventional scenario, full automation results in similar GHG emissions for the V350-ICEV but 10% higher for the V125-BEV. Conventional delivery with a V125-BEV provides the lowest GHG emissions, 167 g CO2e/package, while partially automated delivery with a V350-ICEV generates the most at 486 g CO2e/package. Fuel economy and delivery density are key parameters, and electrification of the vehicle and carbon intensity of the electricity have a large impact. CAV power requirements and efficiency benefits largely offset each other, and automation has a moderate impact on life cycle GHG emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Li
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Xiaoyi He
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Nicholas J Kemp
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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15
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Bhuwalka K, Field FR, De Kleine RD, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Kirchain RE. Characterizing the Changes in Material Use due to Vehicle Electrification. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55:10097-10107. [PMID: 34213890 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c00970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Modern automobiles are composed of more than 2000 different compounds comprising 76 different elements. Identifying supply risks across this palette of materials is important to ensure a smooth transition to more sustainable transportation technologies. This paper provides insight into how electrification is changing vehicle composition and how that change drives supply risk vulnerability by providing the first comprehensive, high-resolution (elemental and compound level) snapshot of material use in both conventional and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) using a consistent methodology. To make these contributions, we analyze part-level data of material use for seven current year models, ranging from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) to plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs). With this data set, we apply a novel machine learning algorithm to estimate missing or unreported composition data. We propose and apply a metric of vulnerability, referred to as exposure, which captures economic importance and susceptibility to price changes. We find that exposure increases from $874 per vehicle for ICEV passenger vehicles to $2344 per vehicle for SUV PHEVs. The shift to a PHEV fleet would double automaker exposure adding approximately $1 billion per year of supply risk to a hypothetical fleet of a million vehicles. The increase in exposure is largely not only due to the increased use of battery elements like cobalt, graphite, and nickel but also some more commonly used materials, most notably copper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karan Bhuwalka
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Robert D De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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16
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Rami Alfarra M, Bloss WJ, Chan C, Chen Y, Gani S, Han Y, Harrison RM, Khan MAH, Kim S, Lee J, Pfrang C, Pöschl U, Shi Z, Styring P, van Pinxteren D, Wallington TJ, Zhu T. General discussion: Sources, sinks and mitigation methods; evaluation of health impacts. Faraday Discuss 2021; 226:607-616. [PMID: 33877227 DOI: 10.1039/d1fd90012a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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17
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Altuwayjiri AH, Bloss WJ, Harrison RM, Mihaylova L, Molina LT, Oyarzún Aravena AM, Pfrang C, Schauer J, Slater J, Srivastava D, Styring P, Wallington TJ, Wang P, Watson JG. General discussion: Trends in emissions concentrations. Faraday Discuss 2021; 226:100-111. [PMID: 33877222 DOI: 10.1039/d1fd90013g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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18
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He X, Shen W, Wallington TJ, Zhang S, Wu X, Bao Z, Wu Y. Asia Pacific road transportation emissions, 1900-2050. Faraday Discuss 2020; 226:53-73. [PMID: 33244531 DOI: 10.1039/d0fd00096e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Asia Pacific (AP) is the largest regional vehicle market and accounted for 48% of global sales in 2019. Air quality is a pressing issue in many AP countries and together with increased vehicle sales has led to intense scrutiny of vehicle emissions. The heterogeneity of socio-economic features and transportation patterns in AP countries has resulted in different emission levels and control policies. We present an assessment of the historical and future emissions of on-road transportation and strategies to tackle emission challenges. First, we collected historical country-level population, economic development, vehicle ownership, and transportation policy data from 1900 to 2020, and forecast future development of on-road transportation activity (both passenger and freight) based on its historical relationship with socio-economic development through 2050. We considered major countries (China, India, Japan, South Korea, Australia) individually and other AP countries as a group. Second, we generated a series of emission control scenarios with various stringency levels after a comprehensive review of vehicle control measures implemented in AP countries. The control packages included transportation mode shifts, pollutant emission standards, fuel consumption standards, fuel and powertrain diversification, improvement in fuel quality, and economic and transportation policies. Localized emission factors for greenhouse gases (GHGs) and criteria air pollutants (carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM)) were collected and estimated in line with the emission control measures. Third, we estimated historical and future emissions of AP on-road transportation from 1900 to 2050. The results showed that major air pollutants (NOx, CO, and PM2.5) from on-road vehicles peaked in 2000-2010 and are now declining despite increasing vehicle population. Control of GHGs is more challenging than for criteria air pollutants. In our reference scenario where existing policies and emission standards are implemented and new technologies are adopted according to national plans, road transportation GHG emissions in AP peak in approximately 2040.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi He
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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19
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Hodnebrog Ø, Aamaas B, Fuglestvedt JS, Marston G, Myhre G, Nielsen CJ, Sandstad M, Shine KP, Wallington TJ. Updated Global Warming Potentials and Radiative Efficiencies of Halocarbons and Other Weak Atmospheric Absorbers. Rev Geophys 2020; 58:e2019RG000691. [PMID: 33015672 PMCID: PMC7518032 DOI: 10.1029/2019rg000691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Human activity has led to increased atmospheric concentrations of many gases, including halocarbons, and may lead to emissions of many more gases. Many of these gases are, on a per molecule basis, powerful greenhouse gases, although at present-day concentrations their climate effect is in the so-called weak limit (i.e., their effect scales linearly with concentration). We published a comprehensive review of the radiative efficiencies (RE) and global warming potentials (GWP) for around 200 such compounds in 2013 (Hodnebrog et al., 2013, https://doi.org/10.1002/rog.20013). Here we present updated RE and GWP values for compounds where experimental infrared absorption spectra are available. Updated numbers are based on a revised "Pinnock curve", which gives RE as a function of wave number, and now also accounts for stratospheric temperature adjustment (Shine & Myhre, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001951). Further updates include the implementation of around 500 absorption spectra additional to those in the 2013 review and new atmospheric lifetimes from the literature (mainly from WMO (2019)). In total, values for 60 of the compounds previously assessed are based on additional absorption spectra, and 42 compounds have REs which differ by >10% from our previous assessment. New RE calculations are presented for more than 400 compounds in addition to the previously assessed compounds, and GWP calculations are presented for a total of around 250 compounds. Present-day radiative forcing due to halocarbons and other weak absorbers is 0.38 [0.33-0.43] W m-2, compared to 0.36 [0.32-0.40] W m-2 in IPCC AR5 (Myhre et al., 2013, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.018), which is about 18% of the current CO2 forcing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ø Hodnebrog
- Center for International Climate Research (CICERO) Oslo Norway
| | - B Aamaas
- Center for International Climate Research (CICERO) Oslo Norway
| | - J S Fuglestvedt
- Center for International Climate Research (CICERO) Oslo Norway
| | - G Marston
- Vice-Chancellor's Office Northumbria University Newcastle UK
| | - G Myhre
- Center for International Climate Research (CICERO) Oslo Norway
| | - C J Nielsen
- Department of Chemistry University of Oslo Oslo Norway
| | - M Sandstad
- Center for International Climate Research (CICERO) Oslo Norway
| | - K P Shine
- Department of Meteorology University of Reading Reading UK
| | - T J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Eng. Ford Motor Company Dearborn MI USA
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20
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Sulbaek Andersen MP, Hass SA, Lyster K, Avetikyan M, Wallington TJ, Nielsen OJ. Photochemistry of 2,2-dichloroethanol: kinetics and mechanism of the reaction with Cl atoms and OH radicals. Environ Sci Process Impacts 2020; 22:719-727. [PMID: 31970349 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00581a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Smog chamber/FTIR techniques were used to investigate the kinetics and mechanism of the Cl atom and OH radical initiated oxidation of 2,2-dichloroethanol at (296 ± 1) K. Relative rate methods were used to measure k(Cl + CHCl2CH2OH) = (5.87 ± 0.96) × 10-12 and k(OH + CHCl2CH2OH) = (5.54 ± 1.94) × 10-13 cm3 molecule-1 s-1. Chlorine atom initiated oxidation of CHCl2CH2OH in one atmosphere of air gives HCOCl, CHCl2CHO, and COCl2 in yields of (62 ± 5)%, (39 ± 10)%, and (8 ± 2)%, respectively. The rate constant k(Cl + CHCl2CHO) = (8.3 ± 16) × 10-12 cm3 molecule-1 s-1 was determined and the IR spectra of CHCl2CHO is reported for the first time. The atmospheric lifetime for CHCl2CH2OH is estimated as 21 days. The experimental results are discussed in the context of the atmospheric chemistry of chlorinated alcohols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mads P Sulbaek Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
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21
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Ball JC, Anderson JE, Sears VA, Wallington TJ. Model Reactions Involving Ester Functional Groups during Thermo‐Oxidative Degradation of Biodiesel. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/aocs.12277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James C. Ball
- Research & Advanced EngineeringFord Motor Company Dearborn MI 48124 USA
| | - James E. Anderson
- Research & Advanced EngineeringFord Motor Company Dearborn MI 48124 USA
| | - Victoria A. Sears
- Research & Advanced EngineeringFord Motor Company Dearborn MI 48124 USA
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of Michigan‐Dearborn Dearborn MI 48128 USA
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22
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Wu D, Guo F, Field FR, De Kleine RD, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Kirchain RE. Regional Heterogeneity in the Emissions Benefits of Electrified and Lightweighted Light-Duty Vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 2019; 53:10560-10570. [PMID: 31336049 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Electrification and lightweighting technologies are important components of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction strategies for light-duty vehicles. Assessments of GHG emissions from light-duty vehicles should take a cradle-to-grave life cycle perspective and capture important regional effects. We report the first regionally explicit (county-level) life cycle assessment of the use of lightweighting and electrification for light-duty vehicles in the U.S. Regional differences in climate, electric grid burdens, and driving patterns compound to produce significant regional heterogeneity in the GHG benefits of electrification. We show that lightweighting further accentuates these regional differences. In fact, for the midsized cars considered in our analysis, model results suggest that aluminum lightweight vehicles with a combustion engine would have similar emissions to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) in about 25% of the counties in the US and lower than battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in 20% of counties. The results highlight the need for a portfolio of fuel efficient offerings to recognize the heterogeneity of regional climate, electric grid burdens, and driving patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Wu
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Fengdi Guo
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Robert D De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
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23
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He X, Zhang S, Wu Y, Wallington TJ, Lu X, Tamor MA, McElroy MB, Zhang KM, Nielsen CP, Hao J. Economic and Climate Benefits of Electric Vehicles in China, the United States, and Germany. Environ Sci Technol 2019; 53:11013-11022. [PMID: 31415163 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Mass adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is widely viewed as essential to address climate change and requires a compelling case for ownership worldwide. While the manufacturing costs and technical capabilities of EVs are similar across regions, customer needs and economic contexts vary widely. Assessments of the all-electric-range required to cover day-to-day driving demand, and the climate and economic benefits of EVs, need to account for differences in regional characteristics and individual travel patterns. To meet this need travel profiles for 1681 light-duty passenger vehicles in China, the U.S., and Germany were used to make the first consistent multiregional comparison of customer and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission benefits of EVs. We show that despite differences in fuel prices, driving patterns, and subsidies, the economic benefits/challenges of EVs are generally similar across regions. Individuals who are economically most likely to adopt EVs have GHG benefits that are substantially greater than for average drivers. Such "priority" EV customers have large (32%-63%) reductions in cradle-to-grave GHG emissions. It is shown that low battery costs (below approximately $100/kWh) and a portfolio of EV offerings are required for mass adoption of electric vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi He
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control , Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
| | - Shaojun Zhang
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control , Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering , Cornell University , Ithaca , New York 14853 , United States
| | - Ye Wu
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control , Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Engineering , Ford Motor Company , 2101 Village Road , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Xi Lu
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control , Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
| | - Michael A Tamor
- Research and Advanced Engineering , Ford Motor Company , 2101 Village Road , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Michael B McElroy
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences , Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02138 , United States
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences , Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02138 , United States
| | - K Max Zhang
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering , Cornell University , Ithaca , New York 14853 , United States
| | - Chris P Nielsen
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences , Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02138 , United States
| | - Jiming Hao
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control , Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex , Beijing 100084 , P. R. China
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24
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Shen W, Han W, Wallington TJ, Winkler SL. China Electricity Generation Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity in 2030: Implications for Electric Vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 2019; 53:6063-6072. [PMID: 31021614 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Electrification of transportation offers clear national energy security benefits but unclear climate benefits. With the current heterogeneity of grid electricity mix in China, greenhouse gas (GHG) benefits of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) vary dramatically with location. Currently, compared to baseline conventional gasoline vehicles, BEVs in north and northeastern Chinese provinces have very modest (∼10-20%) well-to-wheel (WTW) GHG benefits, whereas BEVs in southern provinces have substantial benefits (∼50%). With the expected transition to a more renewable electricity mix documented here, regional effects will largely disappear and the benefits of BEVs will be substantial (∼60-70% lower than current internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) and ∼10-40% lower than 2030 advanced hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)) across the whole of China by 2030. GHG emissions from BEVs in Chinese cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing, and Pearl River Delta) and United States cities and regions (New York; Washington, DC; Chicago; New England; Texas; and California) in 2015 and 2030 are evaluated and compared. BEVs in Chinese cities will still have substantially higher WTW GHG emissions than those in New York, New England, and California in 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Shen
- Asia Pacific Research , Ford Motor Company , Unit 4901, Tower C, Beijing Yintai Center, No. 2 Jianguomenwai Street , Beijing 100022 , China
| | - Weijian Han
- Research and Advanced Engineering , Ford Motor Company , 2101 Village Road , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Engineering , Ford Motor Company , 2101 Village Road , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Sandra L Winkler
- Research and Advanced Engineering , Ford Motor Company , 2101 Village Road , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
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25
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Milovanoff A, Kim HC, De Kleine R, Wallington TJ, Posen ID, MacLean HL. A Dynamic Fleet Model of U.S Light-Duty Vehicle Lightweighting and Associated Greenhouse Gas Emissions from 2016 to 2050. Environ Sci Technol 2019; 53:2199-2208. [PMID: 30682256 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Substituting conventional materials with lightweight materials is an effective way to reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from light-duty vehicles. However, estimated GHG emission reductions of lightweighting depend on multiple factors including the vehicle powertrain technology and efficiency, lightweight material employed, and end-of-life material recovery. We developed a fleet-based life cycle model to estimate the GHG emission changes due to lightweighting the U.S. light-duty fleet from 2016 to 2050, using either high strength steel or aluminum as the lightweight material. Our model estimates that implementation of an aggressive lightweighting scenario using aluminum reduces 2016 through 2050 cumulative life cycle GHG emissions from the fleet by 2.9 Gt CO2 eq (5.6%), and annual emissions in 2050 by 11%. Lightweighting has the greatest GHG emission reduction potential when implemented in the near-term, with two times more reduction per kilometer traveled if implemented in 2016 rather than in 2030. Delaying implementation by 15 years sacrifices 72% (2.1 Gt CO2 eq) of the cumulative GHG emission mitigation potential through 2050. Lightweighting is an effective solution that could provide important near-term GHG emission reductions especially during the next 10-20 years when the fleet is dominated by conventional powertrain vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Milovanoff
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121-2053 , United States
| | - I Daniel Posen
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Heather L MacLean
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering , University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry , University of Toronto , 200 College Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
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26
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Taatjes CA, Khan MAH, Eskola AJ, Percival CJ, Osborn DL, Wallington TJ, Shallcross DE. Reaction of Perfluorooctanoic Acid with Criegee Intermediates and Implications for the Atmospheric Fate of Perfluorocarboxylic Acids. Environ Sci Technol 2019; 53:1245-1251. [PMID: 30589541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The reaction of perfluorooctanoic acid with the smallest carbonyl oxide Criegee intermediate, CH2OO, has been measured and is very rapid, with a rate coefficient of (4.9 ± 0.8) × 10-10 cm3 s-1, similar to that for reactions of Criegee intermediates with other organic acids. Evidence is shown for the formation of hydroperoxymethyl perfluorooctanoate as a product. With such a large rate coefficient, reaction with Criegee intermediates can be a substantial contributor to atmospheric removal of perfluorocarboxylic acids. However, the atmospheric fates of the ester product largely regenerate the initial acid reactant. Wet deposition regenerates the perfluorocarboxylic acid via condensed-phase hydrolysis. Gas-phase reaction with OH is expected principally to result in formation of the acid anhydride, which also hydrolyzes to regenerate the acid, although a minor channel could lead to destruction of the perfluorinated backbone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A Taatjes
- Combustion Research Facility, Mail Stop 9055 , Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore , California 94551-0969 United States
| | - M Anwar H Khan
- School of Chemistry , The University of Bristol , Cantock's Close BS8 1TS , Bristol , U.K
| | - Arkke J Eskola
- Combustion Research Facility, Mail Stop 9055 , Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore , California 94551-0969 United States
- Department of Chemistry , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 55 (A.I. Virtasen aukio 1) , FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland
| | - Carl J Percival
- The Centre for Atmospheric Science, The School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Science , The University of Manchester , Simon Building, Brunswick Street , Manchester , M13 9PL , U.K
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory , California Institute of Technology , 4800 Oak Grove Drive , Pasadena , California 91109 United States
| | - David L Osborn
- Combustion Research Facility, Mail Stop 9055 , Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore , California 94551-0969 United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research & Advanced Engineering , Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 United States
| | - Dudley E Shallcross
- School of Chemistry , The University of Bristol , Cantock's Close BS8 1TS , Bristol , U.K
- Department of Chemistry , University of the Western Cape , Robert Sobukwe Road , Bellville 7535 , South Africa
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27
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Sulbaek Andersen MP, Sølling TI, Andersen LL, Volkova A, Hovanessian D, Britzman C, Nielsen OJ, Wallington TJ. Atmospheric chemistry of (Z)-CF 3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl: products and mechanisms of the Cl atom, OH radical and O 3 reactions, and role of (E)-(Z) isomerization. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:27949-27958. [PMID: 30382259 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp04903c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The chemical mechanisms of the OH radical, Cl-atom and O3 initiated oxidation of (Z)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl were studied at 296 ± 1 K in 10-700 Torr air of N2/O2 diluent. Cl atoms add to the [double bond splayed left]C[double bond, length as m-dash]C[double bond splayed right] double bond: 12 ± 5% to the terminal carbon and 85 ± 5% to the central carbon. In 700 Torr of air the products are CF3CHClCHO, HCOCl, CF3COCl, CF3CHO, (E)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl, CF3C(O)CHCl2, and CF3CHClCOCl. The yield of (E) isomer was dependent on total pressure, but independent of O2 partial pressure; consistent with isomerization occurring via Cl atom elimination from the chemically activated rather than the thermalized CF3CHCHCl-Cl adduct. The rate constant for (Z)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl + Cl was measured at low pressure (10-15 Torr) and found to be indistinguishable from that determined at 700 Torr total pressure, whereas the low pressure rate constant for (E)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl was 36% smaller. G4MP2 ab initio calculations showed that the (E) isomer is 1.2 kcal mol-1 more stable than the (Z) isomer. Cl atom elimination from the adduct will preferentially form the (E) isomer and hence the rate of CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl loss will be more sensitive to pressure for the (Z) than the (E) isomer. Reaction of (Z)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl with OH radicals gives CF3CHO, HCOCl, (E)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl, and HCl. A significant chlorine atom elimination channel was observed experimentally, and supported by computational results. The oxidation products of the reaction of O3 with (Z)- and (E)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl were determined with no evidence of isomerization. The results are discussed with respect to the atmospheric chemistry and environmental impact of (Z)- and (E)-CF3CH[double bond, length as m-dash]CHCl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mads P Sulbaek Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA.
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28
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Zhang S, Niu T, Wu Y, Zhang KM, Wallington TJ, Xie Q, Wu X, Xu H. Fine-grained vehicle emission management using intelligent transportation system data. Environ Pollut 2018; 241:1027-1037. [PMID: 30029310 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The increasing adoption of intelligent transportation system (ITS) data in smart-city initiatives worldwide has offered unprecedented opportunities for improving transportation air quality management. In this paper, we demonstrate the effective use of ITS and other traffic data to develop a link-level and hourly-based dynamic vehicle emission inventory. Our work takes advantage of the extensive ITS infrastructure deployed in Nanjing, China (6600 km2) that offers high-resolution, multi-source traffic data of the road network. Improved than conventional emission inventories, the ITS data empower the strength of revealing significantly temporal and spatial heterogeneity of traffic dynamics that pronouncedly impacts traffic emission patterns. Four urban districts account for only 4% of the area but approximately 30%-40% of vehicular emissions (e.g., CO2 and air pollutants). Owing to the detailed resolution of road network traffic, two types of emission hotspots are captured by the dynamic emission inventory: those in the urban area dominated by urban passenger traffic, and those along outlying highway corridors reflecting inter-city freight transportation (especially in terms of NOX). Fine-grained quantification of emissions reductions from traffic restriction scenarios is explored. ITS data-driven emission management systems coupled with atmospheric models offer the potential for dynamic air quality management in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojun Zhang
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Tianlin Niu
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Ye Wu
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, PR China.
| | - K Max Zhang
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48121, USA
| | - Qianyan Xie
- Research and Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48121, USA
| | - Xiaomeng Wu
- School of Environment, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Honglei Xu
- Transport Planning and Research Institute, Ministry of Transport, Beijing 100028, PR China
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29
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Masnadi MS, El-Houjeiri HM, Schunack D, Li Y, Englander JG, Badahdah A, Monfort JC, Anderson JE, Wallington TJ, Bergerson JA, Gordon D, Koomey J, Przesmitzki S, Azevedo IL, Bi XT, Duffy JE, Heath GA, Keoleian GA, McGlade C, Meehan DN, Yeh S, You F, Wang M, Brandt AR. Global carbon intensity of crude oil production. Science 2018; 361:851-853. [DOI: 10.1126/science.aar6859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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30
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Bunkan AJC, Srinivasulu G, Amedro D, Vereecken L, Wallington TJ, Crowley JN. Products and mechanism of the OH-initiated photo-oxidation of perfluoro ethyl vinyl ether, C 2F 5OCF[double bond, length as m-dash]CF 2. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:11306-11316. [PMID: 29637965 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp01392f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The OH-initiated photo-oxidation of perfluoro ethyl vinyl ether (C2F5OCF[double bond, length as m-dash]CF2, PEVE) in air (298 K, 50 and 750 Torr total pressure) was studied in a photochemical reactor using in situ detection of PEVE and its products by Fourier transform IR absorption spectroscopy. The relative rate technique was used to derive the rate coefficient, k1, for the reaction of PEVE with OH as k1 = (2.8 ± 0.3) × 10-12 cm3 molecule-1 s-1. The photo-oxidation of PEVE in the presence of NOx at 1 bar results in formation of C2F5OCFO, FC(O)C(O)F and CF2O in molar yields of 0.50 ± 0.07, 0.46 ± 0.07 and 1.50 ± 0.22, respectively. FC(O)C(O)F and CF2O are formed partially in secondary, most likely heterogeneous processes. At a reduced pressure of 50 Torr, the product distribution is shifted towards formation of FC(O)C(O)F, indicating the important role of collisional quenching of initially formed association complexes, and enabling details of the reaction mechanism to be elucidated. An atmospheric photo-oxidation mechanism for PEVE is presented and the environmental implications of PEVE release and degradation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J C Bunkan
- Division of Atmospheric Chemistry, Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie, Mainz 55128, Germany.
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31
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Gawron JH, Keoleian GA, De Kleine RD, Wallington TJ, Kim HC. Life Cycle Assessment of Connected and Automated Vehicles: Sensing and Computing Subsystem and Vehicle Level Effects. Environ Sci Technol 2018; 52:3249-3256. [PMID: 29446302 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Although recent studies of connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) have begun to explore the potential energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission impacts from an operational perspective, little is known about how the full life cycle of the vehicle will be impacted. We report the results of a life cycle assessment (LCA) of Level 4 CAV sensing and computing subsystems integrated into internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and battery electric vehicle (BEV) platforms. The results indicate that CAV subsystems could increase vehicle primary energy use and GHG emissions by 3-20% due to increases in power consumption, weight, drag, and data transmission. However, when potential operational effects of CAVs are included (e.g., eco-driving, platooning, and intersection connectivity), the net result is up to a 9% reduction in energy and GHG emissions in the base case. Overall, this study highlights opportunities where CAVs can improve net energy and environmental performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- James H Gawron
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability , University of Michigan , 440 Church Street , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Robert D De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn , Michigan 48121 , United States
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32
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Elgowainy A, Han J, Ward J, Joseck F, Gohlke D, Lindauer A, Ramsden T, Biddy M, Alexander M, Barnhart S, Sutherland I, Verduzco L, Wallington TJ. Current and Future United States Light-Duty Vehicle Pathways: Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment. Environ Sci Technol 2018; 52:2392-2399. [PMID: 29298387 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This article presents a cradle-to-grave (C2G) assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and costs for current (2015) and future (2025-2030) light-duty vehicles. The analysis addressed both fuel cycle and vehicle manufacturing cycle for the following vehicle types: gasoline and diesel internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), flex fuel vehicles, compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Gasoline ICEVs using current technology have C2G emissions of ∼450 gCO2e/mi (grams of carbon dioxide equivalents per mile), while C2G emissions from HEVs, PHEVs, H2 FCEVs, and BEVs range from 300-350 gCO2e/mi. Future vehicle efficiency gains are expected to reduce emissions to ∼350 gCO2/mi for ICEVs and ∼250 gCO2e/mi for HEVs, PHEVs, FCEVs, and BEVs. Utilizing low-carbon fuel pathways yields GHG reductions more than double those achieved by vehicle efficiency gains alone. Levelized costs of driving (LCDs) are in the range $0.25-$1.00/mi depending on time frame and vehicle-fuel technology. In all cases, vehicle cost represents the major (60-90%) contribution to LCDs. Currently, HEV and PHEV petroleum-fueled vehicles provide the most attractive cost in terms of avoided carbon emissions, although they offer lower potential GHG reductions. The ranges of LCD and cost of avoided carbon are narrower for the future technology pathways, reflecting the expected economic competitiveness of these alternative vehicles and fuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amgad Elgowainy
- Argonne National Laboratory , Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Jeongwoo Han
- Argonne National Laboratory , Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Jacob Ward
- United States Department of Energy , Washington, D.C. 20585, United States
| | - Fred Joseck
- United States Department of Energy , Washington, D.C. 20585, United States
| | - David Gohlke
- Argonne National Laboratory , Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Alicia Lindauer
- United States Department of Energy , Washington, D.C. 20585, United States
| | - Todd Ramsden
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory , Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Mary Biddy
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory , Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Mark Alexander
- Electric Power Research Institute , Palo Alto, California 94304, United States
| | | | | | - Laura Verduzco
- Chevron Corporation , Richmond, California 94802, United States
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33
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Sulbaek Andersen MP, Lengkong JW, Wallberg J, Hasager F, Vo K, Andersen ST, Kjaergaard HG, Wallington TJ, Nielsen OJ. Atmospheric chemistry of hexa- and penta-fluorobenzene: UV photolysis and kinetics and mechanisms of the reactions of Cl atoms and OH radicals. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:28796-28809. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cp05540h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Chamber studies show that the atmospheric fates of aromatic Cl- and OH adducts are very different.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mads P. Sulbaek Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- California State University Northridge
- Northridge
- USA
- Copenhagen Centrum for Atmospheric Research
| | - Jonathan W. Lengkong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- California State University Northridge
- Northridge
- USA
| | - Jens Wallberg
- Copenhagen Centrum for Atmospheric Research
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Copenhagen
- 2100 Copenhagen
- Denmark
| | - Freja Hasager
- Copenhagen Centrum for Atmospheric Research
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Copenhagen
- 2100 Copenhagen
- Denmark
| | - Karen Vo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- California State University Northridge
- Northridge
- USA
| | - Simone Thirstrup Andersen
- Copenhagen Centrum for Atmospheric Research
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Copenhagen
- 2100 Copenhagen
- Denmark
| | - Henrik G. Kjaergaard
- Copenhagen Centrum for Atmospheric Research
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Copenhagen
- 2100 Copenhagen
- Denmark
| | | | - Ole John Nielsen
- Copenhagen Centrum for Atmospheric Research
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Copenhagen
- 2100 Copenhagen
- Denmark
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Field FR, Wallington TJ, Everson M, Kirchain RE. Strategic Materials in the Automobile: A Comprehensive Assessment of Strategic and Minor Metals Use in Passenger Cars and Light Trucks. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:14436-14444. [PMID: 29120610 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b06063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive component-level assessment of several strategic and minor metals (SaMMs), including copper, manganese, magnesium, nickel, tin, niobium, light rare earth elements (LREEs; lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, and samarium), cobalt, silver, tungsten, heavy rare earth elements (yttrium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium), and gold, use in the 2013 model year Ford Fiesta, Focus, Fusion, and F-150 is presented. Representative material contents in cars and light-duty trucks are estimated using comprehensive, component-level data reported by suppliers. Statistical methods are used to accommodate possible errors within the database and provide estimate bounds. Results indicate that there is a high degree of variability in SaMM use and that SaMMs are concentrated in electrical, drivetrain, and suspension subsystems. Results suggest that trucks contain greater amounts of aluminum, nickel, niobium, and silver and significantly greater amounts of magnesium, manganese, gold, and LREEs. We find tin and tungsten use in automobiles to be 3-5 times higher than reported by previous studies which have focused on automotive electronics. Automotive use of strategic and minor metals is substantial, with 2013 vehicle production in the United States, Canada, EU15, and Japan alone accounting for approximately 20% of global production of Mg and Ta and approximately 5% of Al, Cu, and Sn. The data and analysis provide researchers, recyclers, and decision-makers additional insight into the vehicle content of strategic and minor metals of current interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Mark Everson
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Kaiser EW, Wallington TJ. Products from the Oxidation of n-Butane from 298 to 735 K Using Either Cl Atom or Thermal Initiation: Formation of Acetone and Acetic Acid-Possible Roaming Reactions? J Phys Chem A 2017; 121:8543-8560. [PMID: 28982240 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.7b06608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The oxidation of 2-butyl radicals (and to a lesser extent 1-butyl radicals) has been studied over the temperature range of 298-735 K. The reaction of Cl atoms (formed by 360 nm irradiation of Cl2) with n-butane generated the 2-butyl radicals in mixtures of n-C4H10, O2, and Cl2 at temperatures below 600 K. Above 600 K, 2-butyl radicals were produced by thermal combustion reactions in the absence of chlorine. The yields of the products were measured by gas chromatography using a flame ionization detector. Major products quantified include acetone, acetic acid, acetaldehyde, butanone, 2-butanol, butanal, 1- and 2- chlorobutane, 1-butene, trans-2-butene, and cis-2-butene. At 298 K, the major oxygenated products are those expected from bimolecular reactions of 2-butylperoxy radicals (butanone, 2-butanol, and acetaldehyde). As the temperature rises to 390 K, the butanone decreases while acetaldehyde increases because of the increased rate of 2-butoxy radical decomposition. Acetone and acetic acid first appear in significant yield near 400 K, and these species rise slowly at first and then sharply, peaking near 525 K at yields of ∼25 and ∼20 mol %, respectively. In the same temperature range (400-525 K), butanone, acetaldehyde, and 2-butanol decrease rapidly. This suggests that acetone and acetic acid may be formed by previously unknown reaction channels of the 2-butylperoxy radical, which are in competition with those that lead to butanone, acetaldehyde, and 2-butanol. Above 570 K, the yields of acetone and acetic acid fall rapidly as the yields of the butenes rise. Experiments varying the Cl atom density, which in turn controls the entire radical pool density, were performed in the temperature range of 410-440 K. Decreasing the Cl atom density increased the yields of acetone and acetic acid while the yields of butanone, acetaldehyde, and 2-butanol decreased. This is consistent with the formation of acetone and acetic acid by unimolecular decomposition channels of the 2-butylperoxy radical, which are in competition with the bimolecular channels that form butanone, acetaldehyde, and 2-butanol. Such unimolecular decomposition channels would be unlikely to proceed through conventional transition states because those states would be very constrained. Therefore, the possibility that these decomposition channels proceed via roaming should be considered. In addition, we investigated and were unable to fit our data trends by a simplified ketohydroperoxide mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- E W Kaiser
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan-Dearborn , 4901 Evergreen Road, Dearborn, Michigan 48128, United States
| | - T J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
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Archer-Nicholls S, Archibald A, Arnold S, Bartels-Rausch T, Brown S, Carpenter LJ, Collins W, Conibear L, Doherty R, Dunmore R, Edebeli J, Edwards M, Evans M, Finlayson-Pitts B, Hamilton J, Hastings M, Heald C, Heard D, Kalberer M, Kampf C, Kiendler-Scharr A, Knopf D, Kroll J, Lacey F, Lelieveld J, Marais E, Murphy J, Olawoyin O, Ravishankara A, Reid J, Rudich Y, Shindell D, Unger N, Wahner A, Wallington TJ, Williams J, Young P, Zelenyuk A. The air we breathe: Past, present, and future: general discussion. Faraday Discuss 2017; 200:501-527. [PMID: 28795728 DOI: 10.1039/c7fd90040f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Archibald A, Arnold S, Bejan L, Brown S, Brüggemann M, Carpenter LJ, Collins W, Evans M, Finlayson-Pitts B, George C, Hastings M, Heard D, Hewitt CN, Isaacman-VanWertz G, Kalberer M, Keutsch F, Kiendler-Scharr A, Knopf D, Lelieveld J, Marais E, Petzold A, Ravishankara A, Reid J, Rovelli G, Scott C, Sherwen T, Shindell D, Tinel L, Unger N, Wahner A, Wallington TJ, Williams J, Young P, Zelenyuk A. Atmospheric chemistry and the biosphere: general discussion. Faraday Discuss 2017; 200:195-228. [PMID: 28795727 DOI: 10.1039/c7fd90038d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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38
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Luk JM, Kim HC, De Kleine R, Wallington TJ, MacLean HL. Review of the Fuel Saving, Life Cycle GHG Emission, and Ownership Cost Impacts of Lightweighting Vehicles with Different Powertrains. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:8215-8228. [PMID: 28714678 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The literature analyzing the fuel saving, life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, and ownership cost impacts of lightweighting vehicles with different powertrains is reviewed. Vehicles with lower powertrain efficiencies have higher fuel consumption. Thus, fuel savings from lightweighting internal combustion engine vehicles can be higher than those of hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. However, the impact of fuel savings on life cycle costs and GHG emissions depends on fuel prices, fuel carbon intensities and fuel storage requirements. Battery electric vehicle fuel savings enable reduction of battery size without sacrificing driving range. This reduces the battery production cost and mass, the latter results in further fuel savings. The carbon intensity of electricity varies widely and is a major source of uncertainty when evaluating the benefits of fuel savings. Hybrid electric vehicles use gasoline more efficiently than internal combustion engine vehicles and do not require large plug-in batteries. Therefore, the benefits of lightweighting depend on the vehicle powertrain. We discuss the value proposition of the use of lightweight materials and alternative powertrains. Future assessments of the benefits of vehicle lightweighting should capture the unique characteristics of emerging vehicle powertrains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Luk
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Robert De Kleine
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials & Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Heather L MacLean
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto , 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4 Canada
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39
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Li X, Zhang Q, Zhang Y, Zhang L, Wang Y, Zhang Q, Li M, Zheng Y, Geng G, Wallington TJ, Han W, Shen W, He K. Attribution of PM 2.5 exposure in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region to emissions: implication to control strategies. Sci Bull (Beijing) 2017; 62:957-964. [PMID: 36659467 DOI: 10.1016/j.scib.2017.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region is one of the most heavily polluted regions in China, with both high PM2.5 concentrations and a high population density. A quantitative source-receptor relationship can provide valuable insights that can inform effective emission control strategies. Both source apportionment (SA) and source sensitivity (SS) can provide such information from different perspectives. In this study, both methods are applied in northern China to identify the most significant emission categories and source regions for PM2.5 exposure in BTH in 2013. Despite their differences, both models show similar distribution patterns for population and simulated PM2.5 concentrations, resulting in overall high PM2.5 exposure values (approximately 110μg/m3) and particularly high exposure values during the winter (approximately 200μg/m3). Both methods show that local emissions play a dominant role (70%), with some contribution from surrounding provinces (e.g., Shandong) via regional transport. The two methods also agree on the priority of local emission controls: both identify industrial, residential, and agricultural emissions as the top three categories that should be controlled locally. In addition, the effect of controlling agricultural ammonia emissions is approximately doubled when the co-benefits of reducing nitrate are considered. The synthesis of SA and SS for addressing specific categories of emissions provides a quantitative basis for the development of emission control strategies and policies for controlling PM2.5 in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Regional Environmental Quality, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA; Collaborative Innovation Center for Regional Environmental Quality, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Lin Zhang
- Laboratory for Climate and Ocean-Atmosphere Sciences, Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yuxuan Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Department of Marine Sciences, Texas A&M University at Galveston, Galveston, TX, USA; Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Qianqian Zhang
- National Satellite Meteorological Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Meng Li
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yixuan Zheng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Guannan Geng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Department of Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, Village Road, Dearborn MI 48121, USA
| | - Weijian Han
- Research and Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, Village Road, Dearborn MI 48121, USA
| | - Wei Shen
- Asia Pacific Research, Ford Motor Company, Beijing 100022, China
| | - Kebin He
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Regional Environmental Quality, Beijing 100084, China; State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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Alpert P, Archibald A, Arnold S, Ashworth K, Brown S, Campbell S, Carpenter LJ, Coe H, Dou J, Edebeli J, Finlayson-Pitts B, Grantham A, Hamilton J, Hastings M, Heard D, Isaacman-VanWertz G, Jones R, Kalberer M, Kiendler-Scharr A, Knopf D, Kroll J, Lelieveld J, Lewis A, Marais E, Marsh A, Moller S, Petzold A, Porter W, Ravishankara A, Reid J, Rickard A, Rovelli G, Rudich Y, Taatjes C, Vaughan A, Wahner A, Wallington TJ, Williams J, Young P, Zelenyuk A. New tools for atmospheric chemistry: general discussion. Faraday Discuss 2017; 200:663-691. [DOI: 10.1039/c7fd90041d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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41
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Edwards MR, Klemun M, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Winkler SL, Tamor MA, Trancik JE. Vehicle emissions of short-lived and long-lived climate forcers: trends and tradeoffs. Faraday Discuss 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7fd00063d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Evaluating technology options to mitigate the climate impacts of road transportation can be challenging, particularly when they involve a tradeoff between long-lived emissions (e.g., carbon dioxide) and short-lived emissions (e.g., methane or black carbon). Here we present trends in short- and long-lived emissions for light- and heavy-duty transport globally and in the U.S., EU, and China over the period 2000–2030, and we discuss past and future changes to vehicle technologies to reduce these emissions. We model the tradeoffs between short- and long-lived emission reductions across a range of technology options, life cycle emission intensities, and equivalency metrics. While short-lived vehicle emissions have decreased globally over the past two decades, significant reductions in CO2will be required by mid-century to meet climate change mitigation targets. This is true regardless of the time horizon used to compare long- and short-lived emissions. The short-lived emission intensities of some low-CO2technologies are higher than others, and thus their suitability for meeting climate targets depends sensitively on the evaluation time horizon. Other technologies offer low intensities of both short-lived emissions and CO2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research & Advanced Engineering
- Ford Motor Company
- Dearborn
- USA
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42
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Wu Y, Zhang S, Hao J, Liu H, Wu X, Hu J, Walsh MP, Wallington TJ, Zhang KM, Stevanovic S. On-road vehicle emissions and their control in China: A review and outlook. Sci Total Environ 2017; 574:332-349. [PMID: 27639470 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
The large (26-fold over the past 25years) increase in the on-road vehicle fleet in China has raised sustainability concerns regarding air pollution prevention, energy conservation, and climate change mitigation. China has established integrated emission control policies and measures since the 1990s, including implementation of emission standards for new vehicles, inspection and maintenance programs for in-use vehicles, improvement in fuel quality, promotion of sustainable transportation and alternative fuel vehicles, and traffic management programs. As a result, emissions of major air pollutants from on-road vehicles in China have peaked and are now declining despite increasing vehicle population. As might be expected, progress in addressing vehicle emissions has not always been smooth and challenges such as the lack of low sulfur fuels, frauds over production conformity and in-use inspection tests, and unreliable retrofit programs have been encountered. Considering the high emission density from vehicles in East China, enhanced vehicle, fuel and transportation strategies will be required to address vehicle emissions in China. We project the total vehicle population in China to reach 400-500 million by 2030. Serious air pollution problems in many cities of China, in particular high ambient PM2.5 concentration, have led to pressure to accelerate the progress on vehicle emission reduction. A notable example is the draft China 6 emission standard released in May 2016, which contains more stringent emission limits than those in the Euro 6 regulations, and adds a real world emission testing protocol and a 48-h evaporation testing procedure including diurnal and hot soak emissions. A scenario (PC[1]) considered in this study suggests that increasingly stringent standards for vehicle emissions could mitigate total vehicle emissions of HC, CO, NOX and PM2.5 in 2030 by approximately 39%, 57%, 59% and 79%, respectively, compared with 2013 levels. With additional actions to control the future light-duty passenger vehicle population growth and use, and introduce alternative fuels and new energy vehicles, the China total vehicle emissions of HC, CO, NOX and PM2.5 in 2030 could be reduced by approximately 57%, 71%, 67% and 84%, respectively, (the PC[2] scenario) relative to 2013. This paper provides detailed policy roadmaps and technical options related to these future emission reductions for governmental stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Wu
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Shaojun Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jiming Hao
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Huan Liu
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Sources and Control of Air Pollution Complex, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xiaomeng Wu
- School of Environment, and State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jingnan Hu
- Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | | | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, 2101 Village Road, Dearborn, MI 48121-2053, USA
| | - K Max Zhang
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Svetlana Stevanovic
- International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia
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43
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Kim HC, Wallington TJ. Life Cycle Assessment of Vehicle Lightweighting: A Physics-Based Model To Estimate Use-Phase Fuel Consumption of Electrified Vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:11226-11233. [PMID: 27533735 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Assessing the life-cycle benefits of vehicle lightweighting requires a quantitative description of mass-induced fuel consumption (MIF) and fuel reduction values (FRVs). We have extended our physics-based model of MIF and FRVs for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to electrified vehicles (EVs) including hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). We illustrate the utility of the model by calculating MIFs and FRVs for 37 EVs and 13 ICEVs. BEVs have much smaller MIF and FRVs, both in the range 0.04-0.07 Le/(100 km 100 kg), than those for ICEVs which are in the ranges 0.19-0.32 and 0.16-0.22 L/(100 km 100 kg), respectively. The MIF and FRVs for HEVs and PHEVs mostly lie between those for ICEVs and BEVs. Powertrain resizing increases the FRVs for ICEVs, HEVs and PHEVs. Lightweighting EVs is less effective in reducing greenhouse gas emissions than lightweighting ICEVs, however the benefits differ substantially for different vehicle models. The physics-based approach outlined here enables model specific assessments for ICEVs, HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs required to determine the optimal strategy for maximizing the life-cycle benefits of lightweighting the light-duty vehicle fleet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Materials and Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Materials and Manufacturing R&A Department, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
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Østerstrøm FF, Wallington TJ, Andersen MPS, Nielsen OJ. Correction of C(O)F 2 Yields in "Atmospheric Chemistry of (CF 3) 2CHOCH 3, (CF 3) 2CHOCHO, and CF 3C(O)OCH 3". J Phys Chem A 2016; 120:7987-7988. [PMID: 27690150 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.6b09344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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45
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Zhang J, Everson MP, Wallington TJ, Field FR, Roth R, Kirchain RE. Assessing Economic Modulation of Future Critical Materials Use: The Case of Automotive-Related Platinum Group Metals. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:7687-7695. [PMID: 27285880 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Platinum-group metals (PGMs) are technological and economic enablers of many industrial processes. This important role, coupled with their limited geographic availability, has led to PGMs being labeled as "critical materials". Studies of future PGM flows have focused on trends within material flows or macroeconomic indicators. We complement the previous work by introducing a novel technoeconomic model of substitution among PGMs within the automotive sector (the largest user of PGMs) reflecting the rational response of firms to changing prices. The results from the model support previous conclusions that PGM use is likely to grow, in some cases strongly, by 2030 (approximately 45% for Pd and 5% for Pt), driven by the increasing sales of automobiles. The model also indicates that PGM-demand growth will be significantly influenced by the future Pt-to-Pd price ratio, with swings of Pt and Pd demand of as much as 25% if the future price ratio shifts higher or lower even if it stays within the historic range. Fortunately, automotive catalysts are one of the more effectively recycled metals. As such, with proper policy support, recycling can serve to meet some of this growing demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingshu Zhang
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Mark P Everson
- Ford Motor Company Research and Innovation Center , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Ford Motor Company Research and Innovation Center , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Richard Roth
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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46
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Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Arsenault R, Bae C, Ahn S, Lee J. Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:7715-7722. [PMID: 27303957 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b00830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We report the first cradle-to-gate emissions assessment for a mass-produced battery in a commercial battery electric vehicle (BEV); the lithium-ion battery pack used in the Ford Focus BEV. The assessment was based on the bill of materials and primary data from the battery industry, that is, energy and materials input data from the battery cell and pack supplier. Cradle-to-gate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the 24 kWh Ford Focus lithium-ion battery are 3.4 metric tonnes of CO2-eq (140 kg CO2-eq per kWh or 11 kg CO2-eq per kg of battery). Cell manufacturing is the key contributor accounting for 45% of the GHG emissions. We review published studies of GHG emissions associated with battery production to compare and contrast with our results. Extending the system boundary to include the entire vehicle we estimate a 39% increase in the cradle-to-gate GHG emissions of the Focus BEV compared to the Focus internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), which falls within the range of literature estimates of 27-63% increases for hypothetical nonproduction BEVs. Our results reduce the uncertainties associated with assessment of BEV battery production, serve to identify opportunities to reduce emissions, and confirm previous assessments that BEVs have great potential to reduce GHG emissions over the full life cycle and provide local emission free mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Renata Arsenault
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Chulheung Bae
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Suckwon Ahn
- Corporate R&D, LG Chem Research Park, 188, Munji-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jaeran Lee
- Corporate R&D, LG Chem Research Park, 188, Munji-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
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47
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Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Arsenault R, Bae C, Ahn S, Lee J. Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis. Environ Sci Technol 2016. [PMID: 27303957 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b0083010.1021/acs.est.6b00830.s001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
We report the first cradle-to-gate emissions assessment for a mass-produced battery in a commercial battery electric vehicle (BEV); the lithium-ion battery pack used in the Ford Focus BEV. The assessment was based on the bill of materials and primary data from the battery industry, that is, energy and materials input data from the battery cell and pack supplier. Cradle-to-gate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the 24 kWh Ford Focus lithium-ion battery are 3.4 metric tonnes of CO2-eq (140 kg CO2-eq per kWh or 11 kg CO2-eq per kg of battery). Cell manufacturing is the key contributor accounting for 45% of the GHG emissions. We review published studies of GHG emissions associated with battery production to compare and contrast with our results. Extending the system boundary to include the entire vehicle we estimate a 39% increase in the cradle-to-gate GHG emissions of the Focus BEV compared to the Focus internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), which falls within the range of literature estimates of 27-63% increases for hypothetical nonproduction BEVs. Our results reduce the uncertainties associated with assessment of BEV battery production, serve to identify opportunities to reduce emissions, and confirm previous assessments that BEVs have great potential to reduce GHG emissions over the full life cycle and provide local emission free mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Renata Arsenault
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Chulheung Bae
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Suckwon Ahn
- Corporate R&D, LG Chem Research Park, 188, Munji-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jaeran Lee
- Corporate R&D, LG Chem Research Park, 188, Munji-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea
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49
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Abstract
Increased biofuel content in automotive fuels impacts vehicle tailpipe emissions via two mechanisms: fuel chemistry and engine calibration. Fuel chemistry effects are generally well recognized, while engine calibration effects are not. It is important that investigations of the impact of biofuels on vehicle emissions consider the impact of engine calibration effects and are conducted using vehicles designed to operate using such fuels. We report the results of emission measurements from a Ford F-350 fueled with either fossil diesel or a biodiesel surrogate (butyl nonanoate) and demonstrate the critical influence of engine calibration on NOx emissions. Using the production calibration the emissions of NOx were higher with the biodiesel fuel. Using an adjusted calibration (maintaining equivalent exhaust oxygen concentration to that of the fossil diesel at the same conditions by adjusting injected fuel quantities) the emissions of NOx were unchanged, or lower, with biodiesel fuel. For ethanol, a review of the literature data addressing the impact of ethanol blend levels (E0–E85) on emissions from gasoline light-duty vehicles in the U.S. is presented. The available data suggest that emissions of NOx, non-methane hydrocarbons, particulate matter (PM), and mobile source air toxics (compounds known, or suspected, to cause serious health impacts) from modern gasoline and diesel vehicles are not adversely affected by increased biofuel content over the range for which the vehicles are designed to operate. Future increases in biofuel content when accomplished in concert with changes in engine design and calibration for new vehicles should not result in problematic increases in emissions impacting urban air quality and may in fact facilitate future required emissions reductions. A systems perspective (fuel and vehicle) is needed to fully understand, and optimize, the benefits of biofuels when blended into gasoline and diesel.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eric M. Kurtz
- Research & Advanced Engineering
- Ford Motor Company
- Dearborn
- USA
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50
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Abstract
Smog chambers with in situ FTIR detection were used to measure rate coefficients in 700 Torr of air and 296 ± 2 K of: k(Cl+(CF3)2CHOCH3) = (5.41 ± 1.63) × 10(-12), k(Cl+(CF3)2CHOCHO) = (9.44 ± 1.81) × 10(-15), k(Cl+CF3C(O)OCH3) = (6.28 ± 0.98) × 10(-14), k(OH+(CF3)2CHOCH3) = (1.86 ± 0.41) × 10(-13), and k(OH+(CF3)2CHOCHO) = (2.08 ± 0.63) × 10(-14) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1). The Cl atom initiated oxidation of (CF3)2CHOCH3 gives (CF3)2CHOCHO in a yield indistinguishable from 100%. The OH radical initiated oxidation of (CF3)2CHOCH3 gives the following products (molar yields): (CF3)2CHOCHO (76 ± 8)%, CF3C(O)OCH3 (16 ± 2)%, CF3C(O)CF3 (4 ± 1)%, and C(O)F2 (45 ± 5)%. The primary oxidation product (CF3)2CHOCHO reacts with Cl atoms to give secondary products (molar yields): CF3C(O)CF3 (67 ± 7)%, CF3C(O)OCHO (28 ± 3)%, and C(O)F2 (118 ± 12)%. CF3C(O)OCH3 reacts with Cl atoms to give: CF3C(O)OCHO (80 ± 8)% and C(O)F2 (6 ± 1)%. Atmospheric lifetimes of (CF3)2CHOCH3, (CF3)2CHOCHO, and CF3C(O)OCH3 were estimated to be 62 days, 1.5 years, and 220 days, respectively. The 100-year global warming potentials (GWPs) for (CF3)2CHOCH3, (CF3)2CHOCHO, and CF3C(O)OCH3 are estimated to be 6, 121, and 46, respectively. A comprehensive description of the atmospheric fate of (CF3)2CHOCH3 is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freja From Østerstrøm
- Copenhagen Center for Atmospheric Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Mads P Sulbaek Andersen
- Copenhagen Center for Atmospheric Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University , Northridge, California 91330, United States
| | - Ole John Nielsen
- Copenhagen Center for Atmospheric Research, Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
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