Antimalarial Efficacy of Aqueous Extract of Strychnos ligustrina and Its Combination with Dihydroartemisinin and Piperaquine Phosphate (DHP) against Plasmodium berghei Infection

The development of drug resistance is one of the most severe concerns of malaria control because it increases the risk of malaria morbidity and death. A new candidate drug with antiplasmodial activity is urgently needed. This study evaluated the efficacy of different dosages of aqueous extract of <i>Strychnos ligustrina</i> combined with dihydroartemisinin and piperaquine phosphate (DHP) against murine <i>Plasmodium berghei</i> infection. The BALB/c mice aged 6-8 weeks were divided into 6 groups, each consisting of 10 mice. The growth inhibition of compounds against <i>P. berghei</i> was monitored by calculating the percentage of parasitemia. The results showed that the mice receiving aqueous extract and combination treatment showed growth inhibition of <i>P. berghei</i> in 74% and 94%, respectively. <i>S. ligustrina</i> extract, which consisted of brucine and strychnine, effectively inhibited the multiplication of <i>P. berghei</i>. The treated mice showed improved hematology profiles, body weight, and temperature, as compared to control mice. Co-treatment with <i>S. ligustrina</i> extract and DHP revealed significant antimalarial and antipyretic effects. Our results provide prospects for further discovery of antimalarial drugs that may show more successful chemotherapeutic treatment.

Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of genes of virulent strain isolate of Toxoplasma gondii using enzyme DdeI

Background and Aim: Toxoplasma gondii is a unicellular coccidian parasite distributed globally and is an important zoonotic pathogen. Approximately 30% of the human population worldwide is chronically infected with T. gondii. The pathogenicity of this species depends on the type originating from the clonal population. Techniques for more accurately determining the type of T. gondii have recently been developed using genetic markers. Specifically, T. gondii has been typed using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). This study aimed to identify sets of PCR-RFLP markers that have high power to discriminate genotyping of T. gondii and are easy to use and are easy to use. The objective of this study was to characterize virulent strain isolates of T. gondii by PCR-RFLP using 10 markers with DdeI. Materials and Methods: T. gondii tachyzoites (RH virulent strain) were derived from culture cells at the Indonesian Research Center for Veterinary Sciences. Genotyping was performed on T. gondii DNA extracted from cell cultured tachyzoites using 10 genetic markers of PCR-RFLP, namely, B1#1, B1#2, B1#3, SAG1#1, SAG1#2, P30, BAG1, ROP1, GRA1, and GRA7, with digestion using the restriction enzyme DdeI. Results: The 10 genes were amplified by PCR. Among them, three genetic markers, B1#3, ROP1, and GRA1, were genotyped by the PCR-RFLP using restriction enzyme DdeI. Overall, the findings showed that the specific RFLP profile of digestion of gene regions by DdeI could be used as a specific marker for the virulent biotype causative of toxoplasmosis. In addition, virulent strains of T. gondii can be easily detected by these markers. Conclusion: Three pairs of primers (B1#3, ROP1, and GRA1) with DdeI have proven useful for the diagnosis of acute toxoplasmosis (virulent strain biotype I). This proposed method is relatively simple, rapid, cheap, and can be performed in most laboratories, providing a practical approach for the routine analysis of T. gondii strains.

Ekstrak Metanol Cengkeh (Syzygium Aromaticum (L.) Merry & Perry) Varietas Tuni Buru Selatan sebagai Antimalaria

Malaria masih menjadi salah satu masalah kesehatan di dunia dan Indonesia. Cengkeh (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merry & Perry) adalah tanaman asli Indonesia yang berpotensi sebagai fitofarmaka. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis aktivitas antimalaria in vitro, uji toksisitas, dan uji penghambatan secara in vivo ekstrak metanol cengkeh varietas Tuni Buru Selatan. Konsentrasi uji in vitro bunga, tangkai bunga, dan daun cengkeh masing-masing adalah 0,01, 0,1, 1, 10, dan 100 μg/mL duplo. Dosis uji toksisitas bunga cengkeh dan tangkai bunga cengkeh masing-masing 625, 1250, 2500, 5000, dan 10000 mg/kg BB dan lima ulangan. Uji in vivo dengan menggunakan tiga dosis perlakuan bunga cengkeh dan tangkai bunga cengkeh masing-masing 25, 50, dan 100 mg/kg BB dan 5 ulangan. Hasil uji in vitro menunjukkan 50% Inhibition Concentration (IC50) bunga cengkeh 1,25 μg/mL; tangkai bunga cengkeh 7,89 μg/mL dan daun cengkeh 11,42 μg/mL; 50% Lethal doses (LD50) bunga cengkeh 19743,327 dan tangkai bunga cengkeh 47304,436 mg/kg BB; Persentase penghambatan rata-rata uji in vivo bunga cengkeh 94,19; 95,81; 78,28% dan tangkai bunga cengkeh 90,48; 80,43; 74,14%. Ekstrak metanol cengkeh varietas Tuni Buru Selatan berpotensi sebagai antimalaria dan tidak toksik.

Serological and molecular prevalence of equine piroplasmosis in Western Java, Indonesia

Equine piroplasmosis is an economically significant disease caused by Theileria equi and Babesia caballi, which are tick-borne hemoprotozoan parasites. Infections with these parasite species had never been reported in horses in Indonesia. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of T. equi and B. caballi in horses reared in parts of Western Java, Indonesia. Blood samples were collected randomly from 235 horses in four different districts (Bandung, Depok, Tangerang, and Bogor) in Western Java, Indonesia. Thin blood smears prepared from the sampled animals were stained by Giemsa and observed under a light microscope. Serum samples prepared from blood were screened by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) based on recombinant forms of EMA-2 and BC48 antigens to determine the seroprevalence of T. equi and B. caballi, respectively. DNA samples extracted from the same blood samples were screened by EMA-2 and BC48 gene-based nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) assays for T. equi and B. caballi infections, respectively. Of 235 surveyed animals, five (2.1%) and 15 (6.4%) were seropositive for T. equi and B. caballi, respectively, whereas one and four horses were nPCR-positive for T. equi and B. caballi, respectively. All of the surveyed animals were negative for T. equi and B. caballi by microscopy. The T. equi EMA-2 and B. caballi BC48 gene fragments amplified by the nPCR assays were cloned, sequenced, and subjected to bioinformatic and phylogenetic analyses. The T. equi EMA-2 gene sequence from an Indonesian horse was identical to sequences from Florida and Washington strains and clustered together with these sequences in phylogeny. On the other hand, four Indonesian BC48 gene sequences shared 99.8-100% identity scores. This present study is the first to report T. equi and B. caballi in horses in Indonesia. Our findings highlight the need for monitoring horses in Indonesia for clinical piroplasmosis caused by T. equi and B. caballi.

Molecular evidence of natural hybridization between Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica

Nucleotide sequences of two regions, cytochrome c-oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1) of the mitochondrial DNA and two regions, internal-transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) and the D2 region in the 28S rDNA (28S) of the nuclear DNA were obtained from five Korean worms of the genus Fasciola in order to elucidate their taxonomic status. The CO1 and ND1 regions are all monomorphic in the Korean worms and similar to those of F. gigantica. On the other hand, the ITS2 and D2 regions were found to be polymorphic; that is, out of five worms, two possessed a F. gigantica-type sequence, one, a F. hepatica-type sequence and two possessed sequences of both types indicating an existence of different alleles at the loci. It should be noted that these variations of the ITS2 and D2 regions co-occur at the same individual worms. This was confirmed by sequencing five to six cloned PCR products for each worm. The present study strongly suggests interspecific cross-hybridization between the two species coexisting in Korea.

Presence of the diurnal rhythms of monocyte count and macrophage activities in chicks

The diurnal rhythms of monocyte count in the peripheral blood and the nonspecific activities of peritoneal macrophages were investigated in 6- to 12-wk-old White Leghorn chicks. It was evident that monocyte count and activities of peritoneal macrophages, i.e., phagocytosis and microbicidal activity, showed clear diurnal rhythms. The rhythmic pattern of monocyte count was biphasic, unlike those of humans or mice (which exhibit a monophasic fluctuation pattern). Diurnal rhythms of phagocytic activity and microbicidal activity also showed two peaks. However, the correspondence of fluctuation patterns between phagocytic activity and microbicidal activity that have been shown in chicken heterophils was not shown in chicken macrophages. This result suggests that the activities of both functions fluctuate independently in chicken macrophages. The patterns of macrophage-nonspecific activities were not in agreement with any rhythmic patterns concerning B cell and T cell activities reported previously. This result may indicate that the accessory functions of macrophage for helper T cell activation are not involved in the formation of the rhythmic patterns of B cell and T cell functions in chicks.