Unravelling the maternal evolutionary history of the African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus)

The African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) has lost a significant proportion of its historical range, notably in north-western Africa and South Africa. Recent studies have explored the genetic diversity and population structure of African leopards across the continent. A notable genetic observation is the presence of two divergent mitochondrial lineages, PAR-I and PAR-II. Both lineages appeared to be distributed widely, with PAR-II frequently found in southern Africa. Until now, no study has attempted to date the emergence of either lineage, assess haplotype distribution, or explore their evolutionary histories in any detail. To investigate these underappreciated questions, we compiled the largest and most geographically representative leopard data set of the mitochondrial NADH-5 gene to date. We combined samples (n = 33) collected in an altitudinal transect across the Mpumalanga province of South Africa, where two populations of leopard are known to be in genetic contact, with previously published sequences of African leopard (n = 211). We estimate that the maternal PAR-I and PAR-II lineages diverged approximately 0.7051 (0.4477-0.9632) million years ago (Ma). Through spatial and demographic analyses, we show that while PAR-I underwent a mid-Pleistocene population expansion resulting in several closely related haplotypes with little geographic structure across much of its range, PAR-II remained at constant size and may even have declined slightly in the last 0.1 Ma. The higher genetic drift experienced within PAR-II drove a greater degree of structure with little haplotype sharing and unique haplotypes in central Africa, the Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and the South African Highveld. The phylogeographic structure of PAR-II, with its increasing frequency southward and its exclusive occurrence in south-eastern South Africa, suggests that this lineage may have been isolated in South Africa during the mid-Pleistocene. This hypothesis is supported by historical changes in paleoclimate that promoted intense aridification around the Limpopo Basin between 1.0-0.6 Ma, potentially reducing gene flow and promoting genetic drift. Interestingly, we ascertained that the two nuclear DNA populations identified by a previous study as East and West Mpumalanga correspond to PAR-I and PAR-II, respectively, and that they have come into secondary contact in the Lowveld region of South Africa. Our results suggest a subdivision of African leopard mtDNA into two clades, with one occurring almost exclusively in South Africa, and we identify the potential environmental drivers of this observed structure. We caution that our results are based on a single mtDNA locus, but it nevertheless provides a hypothesis that can be further tested with a dense sample of nuclear DNA data, preferably whole genomes. If our interpretation holds true, it would provide the first genetic explanation for the smaller observed size of leopards at the southernmost end of their range in Africa.

Dynamics of Antimicrobial Resistance Carriage in Koalas (Phascolarctos Cinereus) and Pteropid Bats (Pteropus Poliocephalus) Before, During and After Wildfires

In the 2019-2020 summer, wildfires decimated the Australian bush environment and impacted wildlife species, including koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) and grey headed flying fox pups (Pteropid bats, Pteropus poliocephalus). Consequently, hundreds of koalas and thousands of bat pups entered wildlife hospitals with fire-related injuries/illness, where some individuals received antimicrobial therapy. This study investigated the dynamics of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in pre-fire, fire-affected and post-fire koalas and Pteropid bat pups. PCR and DNA sequencing were used to screen DNA samples extracted from faeces (koalas and bats) and cloacal swabs (koalas) for class 1 integrons, a genetic determinant of AMR, and to identify integron-associated antibiotic resistance genes. Class 1 integrons were detected in 25.5% of koalas (68 of 267) and 59.4% of bats (92 of 155). Integrons contained genes conferring resistance to aminoglycosides, trimethoprim and beta-lactams. Samples were also screened for blaTEM (beta-lactam) resistance genes, which were detected in 2.6% of koalas (7 of 267) and 25.2% of bats (39 of 155). Integron occurrence was significantly higher in fire-affected koalas in-care compared to wild pre-fire koalas (P < 0.0001). Integron and blaTEM occurrence were not significantly different in fire-affected bats compared to pre-fire bats (P > 0.05), however, their occurrence was significantly higher in fire-affected bats in-care compared to wild fire-affected bats (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.0488 respectively). The observed shifts of AMR dynamics in wildfire-impacted species flags the need for judicious antibiotic use when treating fire-affected wildlife to minimise unwanted selective pressure and negative treatment outcomes associated with carriage of resistance genes and antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Characterisation of typical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (tEPEC) lineages and novel bfpA variants detected in Australian fruit bats (Pteropus poliocephalus)

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) is an important cause of diarrhoeal disease in human infants. EPEC strains are defined by the presence of specific virulence factors including intimin (encoded by the eae gene) and bundle forming pili (Bfp). Bfp is encoded by the bfp operon and includes the bfpA gene for the major pilus subunit. By definition, Bfp are only present in typical EPEC (tEPEC), for which, humans are considered to be the only known natural host. This study detected tEPEC in faecal samples from a wild Australian fruit bat species, the grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus). Whole genome sequencing of 61 E. coli isolates from flying-foxes revealed that 21.3 % (95%CI: 13 %-33 %) were tEPEC. Phylogenetic analyses showed flying-fox tEPEC shared evolutionary lineages with human EPEC, but were predominantly novel sequence types (9 of 13) and typically harboured novel bfpA variants (11 of 13). HEp-2 cell adhesion assays showed adherence to human-derived epithelial cells by all 13 flying-fox tEPEC, indicating that they all carried functional Bfp. Using an EPEC-specific duplex PCR, it was determined that tEPEC comprised 17.4 % (95%CI: 13 %-22 %) of 270 flying-fox E. coli isolates. Furthermore, a tEPEC-specific multiplex PCR detected the eae and bfpA virulence genes in 18.0 % (95%CI: 8.0 %-33.7 %) of 506 flying-fox faecal DNA samples, with occurrences ranging from 1.3 % to 87.0 % across five geographic areas sampled over a four-year period. The identification of six novel tEPEC sequence types and five novel bfpA variants suggests flying-foxes carry bat-specific tEPEC lineages. However, their close relationship with human EPEC and functional Bfp, indicates that flying-fox tEPEC have zoonotic potential and that dissemination of flying-fox tEPEC into urban environments may pose a public health risk. The consistent detection of tEPEC in flying-foxes over extensive geographical and temporal scales indicates that both wild grey-headed flying-foxes and humans should be regarded as natural tEPEC hosts.

Land use, season, and parasitism predict metal concentrations in Australian flying fox fur

Urban-living wildlife can be exposed to metal contaminants dispersed into the environment through industrial, residential, and agricultural applications. Metal exposure carries lethal and sublethal consequences for animals; in particular, heavy metals (e.g. arsenic, lead, mercury) can damage organs and act as carcinogens. Many bat species reside and forage in human-modified habitats and could be exposed to contaminants in air, water, and food. We quantified metal concentrations in fur samples from three flying fox species (Pteropus fruit bats) captured at eight sites in eastern Australia. For subsets of bats, we assessed ectoparasite burden, haemoparasite infection, and viral infection, and performed white blood cell differential counts. We examined relationships among metal concentrations, environmental predictors (season, land use surrounding capture site), and individual predictors (species, sex, age, body condition, parasitism, neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio). As expected, bats captured at sites with greater human impact had higher metal loads. At one site with seasonal sampling, bats had higher metal concentrations in winter than in summer, possibly owing to changes in food availability and foraging. Relationships between ectoparasites and metal concentrations were mixed, suggesting multiple causal mechanisms. There was no association between overall metal load and neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio, but mercury concentrations were positively correlated with this ratio, which is associated with stress in other vertebrate taxa. Comparison of our findings to those of previous flying fox studies revealed potentially harmful levels of several metals; in particular, endangered spectacled flying foxes (P. conspicillatus) exhibited high concentrations of cadmium and lead. Because some bats harbor pathogens transmissible to humans and animals, future research should explore interactions between metal exposure, immunity, and infection to assess consequences for bat and human health.

Faecal virome of the Australian grey-headed flying fox from urban/suburban environments contains novel coronaviruses, retroviruses and sapoviruses

Bats are important reservoirs for viruses of public health and veterinary concern. Virus studies in Australian bats usually target the families Paramyxoviridae, Coronaviridae and Rhabdoviridae, with little known about their overall virome composition. We used metatranscriptomic sequencing to characterise the faecal virome of grey-headed flying foxes from three colonies in urban/suburban locations from two Australian states. We identified viruses from three mammalian-infecting (Coronaviridae, Caliciviridae, Retroviridae) and one possible mammalian-infecting (Birnaviridae) family. Of particular interest were a novel bat betacoronavirus (subgenus Nobecovirus) and a novel bat sapovirus (Caliciviridae), the first identified in Australian bats, as well as a potentially exogenous retrovirus. The novel betacoronavirus was detected in two sampling locations 1375 km apart and falls in a viral lineage likely with a long association with bats. This study highlights the utility of unbiased sequencing of faecal samples for identifying novel viruses and revealing broad-scale patterns of virus ecology and evolution.

Transmission of Klebsiella strains and plasmids within and between grey-headed flying fox colonies

The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is an endemic Australian fruit bat, known to carry zoonotic pathogens. We recently showed they harbour bacterial pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae and closely related species in the K. pneumoniae species complex (KpSC); however, the dynamics of KpSC transmission and gene flow within flying fox colonies are poorly understood. High-resolution genome comparisons of 39 KpSC isolates from grey-headed flying foxes identified five putative strain transmission clusters (four intra- and one inter-colony). The instance of inter-colony strain transmission of K. africana was found between two flying fox populations within flying distance, indicating either direct or indirect transmission through a common food/water source. All 11 plasmids identified within the KpSC isolates showed 73% coverage (mean) and ≥95% identity to human-associated KpSC plasmids, indicating gene flow between human clinical and grey-headed flying fox isolates. Along with strain transmission, inter-species horizontal plasmid transmission between K. pneumoniae and Klebsiella africana was also identified within a flying fox colony. Finally, genome-scale metabolic models were generated to predict and compare substrate usage to previously published KpSC models, from human and environmental sources. These models indicated no distinction on the basis of metabolic capabilities. Instead, metabolic capabilities were consistent with population structure and ST/lineage.

Variety is the spice of life: Flying-foxes exploit a variety of native and exotic food plants in an urban landscape mosaic

Generally, urbanization is a major threat to biodiversity; however, urban areas also provide habitats that some species can exploit. Flying-foxes (Pteropus spp.) are becoming increasingly urbanized; which is thought to be a result of increased availability and temporal stability of urban food resources, diminished natural food resources, or both. Previous research has shown that urban-roosting grey-headed flying-foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) preferentially forage in human-modified landscapes. However, which land-use areas and food plants support its presence in urban areas is unknown. We tracked nine P. poliocephalus roosting in Adelaide, South Australia, between December 2019 and May 2020, using global positioning systems (GPS), to investigate how individuals used the urban landscape mosaic for feeding. The most frequently visited land-use category was “residential” (40% of fixes) followed by “road-side,” “reserves” and “primary production” (13–14% each). However, “reserves” were visited four times more frequently than expected from their areal availability, followed by the “residential” and “road-side” categories that were visited approximately twice more than expected each; in contrast, the “primary production” category was visited approximately five times less than expected. These results suggest that while residential areas provide most foraging resources supporting Adelaide’s flying-fox population, reserves contain foraging resources that are particularly attractive to P. poliocephalus. Primary production land was relatively less utilized, presumably because it contains few food resources. Throughout, flying-foxes visited an eclectic mixture of diet plants (49 unique species), with a majority of feeding fixes (63%) to locally indigenous Australian native species; however, in residential areas 53% of feeding visits were to non-locally indigenous species, vs only 13% in reserves. Flowering and fruiting phenology records of the food plants visited further indicated that non-locally indigenous species increase the temporal availability of foraging resources for P. poliocephalus in urban Adelaide. Our findings demonstrate the importance of residential areas for urban-roosting P. poliocephalus, and suggest that the anthropogenic mixture of food resources available in the urban landscape mosaic supports the species’ year-round presence in urban areas. Our results further highlight the importance of conserving natural habitats within the urban landscape mosaic, and stress the need for accounting for wildlife responses to urban greening initiatives.

Porphyromonas spp., Fusobacterium spp., and Bacteroides spp. dominate microbiota in the course of macropod progressive periodontal disease

Macropod progressive periodontal disease (MPPD) is a necrotizing, polymicrobial, inflammatory disease commonly diagnosed in captive macropods. MPPD is characterized by gingivitis associated with dental plaque formation, which progresses to periodontitis and then to osteomyelitis of the mandible or maxilla. However, the underlying microbial causes of this disease remain poorly understood. In this study, we collected 27 oral plaque samples and associated clinical records from 22 captive Macropodidae and Potoroidae individuals that were undergoing clinical examination at Adelaide and Monarto Zoos in South Australia (15 healthy, 7 gingivitis and 5 periodontitis-osteomyelitis samples). The V3-V4 region of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene was sequenced using an Illumina Miseq to explore links between MPPD and oral bacteria in these animals. Compositional differences were detected between the microbiota of periodontitis-osteomyelitis cases compared to healthy samples (p-value with Bonferroni correction < 0.01), as well as gingivitis cases compared to healthy samples (p-value with Bonferroni correction < 0.05) using Permutational Multivariate Analysis of Variance (PERMANOVA). An overabundance of Porphyromonas, Fusobacterium, and Bacteroides taxa was also identified in animals with MPPD compared to healthy individuals using linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe; p =  < 0.05). An increased abundance of Desulfomicrobium also was detected in MPPD samples (LEfSe; p < 0.05), which could potentially reflect differences in disease progression. This is the first microbiota analysis of MPPD in captive macropods, and these results support a polymicrobial pathogenesis of MPPD, suggesting that the microbial interactions underpinning MPPD may be more complex than previously documented.

INFECTION PRESSURE IS NECESSARY, BUT NOT SUFFICIENT BY ITSELF, TO EXPLAIN TOXOPLASMA GONDII SEROPREVALENCE IN INTERMEDIATE HOST SPECIES

Parasite infection pressure is suggested to be a strong driver of transmission within ecosystems. We tested if infection pressure drives seroprevalence in intermediate host species for Toxoplasma gondii. We defined Toxoplasma infection pressure to intermediate host species as the combined influence of cat abundance, environmental conditions, and its prevalence in the cat population. We sampled and tested 2 species of rodent and collated information on Toxoplasma seroprevalence in koalas, wallabies, kangaroos, and sheep. All species were sampled using equivalent methods, within a 2-yr period, and from adjacent regions of low and high Toxoplasma infection pressure. The seroprevalence of Toxoplasma in kangaroos scaled with infection pressure, but we observed no statistical difference in seroprevalence for any other species between these 2 regions. Within the region of low infection pressure, Toxoplasma seroprevalence did not differ between species. However, within the region of high Toxoplasma infection pressure, we observed large variation in seroprevalence between species. Our results demonstrate that infection pressure is not sufficient by itself, but merely necessary, to drive Toxoplasma seroprevalence in intermediate host species. Where Toxoplasma seroprevalence in an intermediate host species is already low, further reducing infection pressure will not necessarily further decrease seroprevalence in those species. This has important ramifications for the mitigation of parasite infections and suggests that reductions in Toxoplasma infection pressure, intended to reduce infections, may be most effective and applicable to species that are known to experience high rates of infection.

Bat E-Commerce: Insights Into the Extent and Potential Implications of This Dark Trade

Little is known about the global bat souvenir trade despite previous research efforts into bat harvest for bushmeat. We screened eBay listings of bats in Australia, Canada, Italy, Switzerland, United Kingdom and USA to assess the nature and extent of the online offers. A total of 237 listings were retrieved in between the 11th and 25th of May 2020 with a median price per item of US$38.50 (range: US$8.50–2,500.00). Items on offer were mostly taxidermy (61.2%) or skull (21.1%) specimens. Overall, 32 different species of bat were advertised, most of which (n = 28) are listed as “Least Concern” on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. One species (Nycteris javanica) is classified as “Vulnerable” and one (Eidolon helvum) as “Near Threatened.” Pteropus spp. specimens were the most expensive specimens on offer and the conservations status of these species may range from “Critically Endangered” to “Data Deficient” by IUCN and the entire genus is listed in the Appendix II by the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, the exact species concerned, and their respective conservation status, could not be confirmed based on the listings' photos. The sourcing of bat was restricted to mostly South-East Asian countries (a third of items sourced from Indonesia) and to two African countries. Our survey revealed that the online offer of bat products is diverse, abundant, and facilitated by worldwide sellers although most offered bats species are from South-East Asia. With a few exceptions, the species on offer were of little present conservation concern, however, many unknowns remain on the potential animal welfare, biosecurity, legal implications, and most importantly public health risks associated with this dark trade.

Characterization of beta-lactam-resistant Escherichia coli from Australian fruit bats indicates anthropogenic origins

Antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli, particularly those resistant to critically important antimicrobials, are increasingly reported in wildlife. The dissemination of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria to wildlife indicates the far-reaching impact of selective pressures imposed by humans on bacteria through misuse of antimicrobials. The grey-headed flying fox (GHFF; Pteropus poliocephalus), a fruit bat endemic to eastern Australia, commonly inhabits urban environments and encounters human microbial pollution. To determine if GHFF have acquired human-associated bacteria, faecal samples from wild GHFF (n=287) and captive GHFF undergoing rehabilitation following illness or injury (n=31) were cultured to detect beta-lactam-resistant E. coli. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing, PCR and whole genome sequencing were used to determine phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance profiles, strain type and virulence factor profiles. Overall, 3.8 % of GHFF carried amoxicillin-resistant E. coli (wild 3.5 % and captive 6.5 %), with 38.5 % of the 13 GHFF E. coli isolates exhibiting multidrug resistance. Carbapenem (bla_NDM-5) and fluoroquinolone resistance were detected in one E. coli isolate, and two isolates were resistant to third-generation cephalosporins (bla_CTX-M-27 and ampC). Resistance to tetracycline and trimethoprim plus sulfamethoxazole were detected in 69.2% and 30.8 % of isolates respectively. Class 1 integrons, a genetic determinant of resistance, were detected in 38.5 % of isolates. Nine of the GHFF isolates (69.2 %) harboured extraintestinal virulence factors. Phylogenetic analysis placed the 13 GHFF isolates in lineages associated with humans and/or domestic animals. Three isolates were human-associated extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ST10 O89:H9, ST73 and ST394) and seven isolates belonged to lineages associated with extraintestinal disease in both humans and domestic animals (ST88, ST117, ST131, ST155 complex, ST398 and ST1850). This study provides evidence of anthropogenic multidrug-resistant and pathogenic E. coli transmission to wildlife, further demonstrating the necessity for incorporating wildlife surveillance within the One Health approach to managing antimicrobial resistance.

Spring foraging movements of an urban population of grey-headed flying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus)

Flying foxes provide ecologically and economically important ecosystem services but extensive clearing and modification of habitat and drought combined with the planting of commercial and non-commercial trees across various landscapes, has meant flying foxes in Australia are increasingly seeking foraging resources in new areas. In 2011, grey-headed flying foxes formed a camp in Adelaide, South Australia, outside their previously recorded range. We used global positioning system telemetry to study the movements and foraging behaviour of this species in Adelaide in spring (September to November) 2015. High-frequency location data were used to determine the foraging range and the most frequently visited foraging sites used by each bat which were ground-truthed to identify forage plants. A total of 7239 valid locations were collected over 170 nights from four collars. Despite being a highly mobile species, the mean core foraging range estimate was only 7.30 km2 (range 3.3–11.2 km2). Maximum foraging distance from the camp in the Botanic Park was 9.5 km but most foraging occurred within a 4-km radius. The most common foraging sites occurred within the residential area of Adelaide and included introduced forage plant species, Lemon-scented gum (Corymbia citriodora) and Port Jackson fig (Ficus rubiginosa). Other observed movement activities included dipping behaviour on inland and marine waters and travel across flight paths around Adelaide airport. Our findings suggest that urban habitats in Adelaide provide sufficient foraging resources for grey-headed flying foxes to use these areas exclusively, at least in spring. This creates substantial opportunities for bats to interact with humans and their infrastructure.

Serological evidence of exposure to a coronavirus antigenically related to severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-1) in the Grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus)

Many infectious pathogens can be transmitted by highly mobile species, like bats that can act as reservoir hosts for viruses such as henipaviruses, lyssaviruses and coronaviruses. In this study, we investigated the seroepidemiology of protein antigens to Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-1) and Middle eastern respiratory syndrome virus (MERS-CoV) in Grey-headed flying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) in Adelaide, Australia sampled between September 2015 and February 2018. A total of 301 serum samples were collected and evaluated using a multiplex Luminex binding assay, and median fluorescence intensity thresholds were determined using finite-mixture modelling. We found evidence of antibodies reactive to SARS-CoV-1 or a related antigen with 42.5% (CI: 34.3%-51.2%) seroprevalence but insufficient evidence of reactivity to MERS-CoV antigen. This study provides evidence that the Grey-headed flying foxes sampled in Adelaide have been exposed to a SARS-like coronavirus.

Dual-locus DNA metabarcoding reveals southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons Owen) have a summer diet dominated by toxic invasive plants

Habitat degradation and summer droughts severely restrict feeding options for the endangered southern hairy-nosed wombat (SHNW; Lasiorhinus latifrons). We reconstructed SHNW summer diets by DNA metabarcoding from feces. We initially validated rbcL and ndhJ diet reconstructions using autopsied and captive animals. Subsequent diet reconstructions of wild wombats broadly reflected vegetative ground cover, implying local rather than long-range foraging. Diets were all dominated by alien invasives. Chemical analysis of alien food revealed Carrichtera annua contains high levels of glucosinolates. Clinical examination (7 animals) and autopsy (12 animals) revealed that the most degraded site also contained most individuals showing signs of glucosinolate poisoning. We infer that dietary poisoning through the ingestion of alien invasives may have contributed to the recent population crashes in the region. In floristically diverse sites, individuals appear to be able to manage glucosinolate intake by avoidance or episodic feeding but this strategy is less tractable in the most degraded sites. We conclude that recovery of the most affected populations may require effective Carrichtera management and interim supplementary feeding. More generally, we argue that protection against population decline by poisoning in territorial herbivores requires knowledge of their diet and of those food plants containing toxic principles.

Field immobilization using alfaxalone and alfaxalone-medetomidine in free-ranging koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus): a randomized comparative study

OBJECTIVE

To characterize and compare two intramuscular drug protocols using alfaxalone and alfaxalone-medetomidine combination for the field immobilization of free-ranging koalas.

STUDY DESIGN

Blinded, randomized, comparative field study.

ANIMALS

A total of 66 free-ranging koalas from the Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia.

METHODS

Koalas were randomly allocated into two groups. Group A animals were given alfaxalone alone at 3.5 mg kg^-1. Group AM animals were given alfaxalone 2 mg kg^-1 and medetomidine 40 μg kg^-1, reversed with atipamezole at 0.16 mg kg^-1. Blinded operators recorded heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (f_R), cloacal temperature, depth of sedation and times to: first effect, sedation suitable for clinical interventions, first arousal and full recovery. Data were analysed using independent t test, Mann-Whitney U test, chi-square analysis and log-rank test at 5% level of significance.

RESULTS

Suitable immobilization for clinical examination and sample collection was achieved in all animals. In groups A and AM, median time to working depth was 6.5 minutes (range: 3.4-15) and 8.1 minutes (range: 4.3-24) and time to complete recovery was 66 minutes (range: 12-138) and 34 minutes (range: 4-84), respectively, following reversal. Time to first effect was significantly shorter in group A (p = 0.013), whereas time to full arousal was significantly shorter in group AM (p = 0.007) probably due to the administration of atipamezole. Maximum HR was 117 ± 28 beats minute^-1 in group A, which was a significant increase from baseline values (p < 0.0001), whereas group AM showed a significant tachypnoea of 67 ± 25 (normal f_R 10-15; p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Both the protocols produced immobilization, enabling clinical examination and sample collection; however, protocol AM was more suitable for field work due to shorter recovery times.

Molecular investigation of Hepatocystis parasites in the Australian flying fox Pteropus poliocephalus across its distribution range

Phylogenetic inference of Hepatocystis, a haemosporidian parasite of diverse primate and bat hosts, revealed that the parasites from Australasian Pteropus bat species form a distinct clade to all other Hepatocystis parasites from Africa and Asia. Here, we investigate the phylogenetic placement of Hepatocystis in the Australian bat Pteropus poliocephalus for the first time and examine parasite morphology and prevalence from selected points across its range. Hepatocystis infections were detected in low prevalences in P. poliocephalus in contrast to high numbers in P. alecto and P. scapulatus. The prevalence in P. poliocephalus varied across its distribution range with 15% in the central biogeographic areas (central Queensland and New South Wales) and 1% in the southern-most edge (South Australia) of its range. Sequencing of five genes revealed high genetic similarity in Hepatocystis of P. poliocephalus independent of sampling location. Phylogenetic analysis placed these parasites with Hepatocystis from other Pteropus species from Australia and Asia. While numerous haplotypes were identified among sequences from the Pteropus hosts, no patterns of host specificity were recovered within the Pteropus-specific parasite group.

Endangered Exotic Pets on Social Media in the Middle East: Presence and Impact

Simple Summary

The exotic pet trade is impacted by social media via greater accessibility to photos and videos including these species and the increasing popularity of online animal marketplaces. The social media presence of public figures owning exotic pets has a major influence on exotic species demand. This study aimed to investigate exotic pet popularity, featured species on social media in the Middle East, and public perception of the animals spotlighted by public figures. We discuss the impact of such on the exotic pet trade and possible solutions to this issue. Male public figures from the United Arab Emirates predominated in the collected data, with most posts sourced from Instagram^®. Eighty-five percent of the species displayed on social media posts were Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix I- and II-listed, including big cats, birds of prey, and great apes. Through an investigation of social media posts of public figures in the Middle East, we found that there was an overall positive audience reception toward endangered exotic pets. Geographic region, social media platform, animal species, and animal age all influenced the results. We recommend improving public education and awareness of wildlife conservation and laws regarding exotic pet possession to combat the idolization of the exotic pet industry.

Abstract

The popularization of exotic pets on celebrity social media in the Middle East has led to questionable impacts on exotic pet demand and threats to species conservation. The objective of this study was to identify exotic animal species featured on Middle Eastern celebrity social media account posts, the public perception of those posts, and their potential impacts on exotic pet demand and conservation (for global-scale extrapolation). Public social media accounts of highly influential persons from oil-rich Middle Eastern regions were manually investigated to evaluate subject demographics, species features, and post information (likes, comments) between January 2017 and August 2018. Twenty-five subjects possessed active social media accounts, from which 418 social media posts were extracted based on their inclusion of a privately owned exotic animal. SPSS Version 25 was used for frequency and descriptive analyses of these posts, in addition to comment analyses to evaluate quantitative (emojis) and qualitative (text) audience perceptions from a total of 10 social media posts of CITES Appendix I- or II-listed species. A greater frequency of positive than negative comments was observed (n = 8017), demonstrating the higher likelihood of social media promotion rather than negation of the exotic pet trade. Public education on wildlife conservation and exotic animal trade risks is imperative for successful conservation and welfare protection.

Chlamydia pecorum prevalence in South Australian koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations: Identification and modelling of a population free from infection

Chlamydia pecorum is an established and prevalent infection that produces severe clinical disease in many koala populations, contributing to dramatic population declines. In wild South Australian koala populations, C. pecorum occurrence and distribution is unknown. Here, C. pecorum-specific real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) was applied to ocular and urogenital swabs from targeted surveys of wild koalas from the mainland Mount Lofty Ranges (MLR) (n = 75) and Kangaroo Island (KI) (n = 170) populations. Historical data from 13,081 KI koalas (1997–2018) provided additional evidence for assessing the absence of C. pecorum infection. In the MLR population, 46.7% (CI: 35.1–58.6%) of koalas were C. pecorum positive by qPCR but only 4% had grade 3 clinical disease. MLR koala fertility was significantly reduced by C. pecorum infection; all reproductively active females (n = 16) were C. pecorum negative, whereas 85.2% of inactive females (n = 23) were positive (P < 0.001). KI koalas were C. pecorum negative and the population was demonstrated to be free of C. pecorum infection with 95% confidence. C. pecorum is a real threat for the sustainability of the koala and KI is possibly the last isolated, large C. pecorum-free population remaining in Australia. These koalas could provide a safeguard against this serious disease threat to an iconic Australian species.

Does the fungus causing white-nose syndrome pose a significant risk to Australian bats?

Abstract ContextPseudogymnoascus destructans is the fungus responsible for white-nose syndrome (WNS), which has killed millions of hibernating bats in North America, but also occurs in bats in Europe and China without causing large-scale population effects. This is likely to be due to differences in species susceptibility and behaviour, and environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity. Pseudogymnoascus destructans is currently believed to be absent from Australia. AimsTo ascertain the level of risk that white-nose syndrome poses for Australian bats. Methods This risk analysis examines the likelihood that P. destructans enters Australia, the likelihood of the fungus coming in contact with native bats on successful entry, and the potential consequences should this occur. Key results This risk assessment concluded that it is very likely to almost certain that P. destructans will enter Australia, and it is likely that bats will be exposed to the fungus over the next 10 years. Eight cave-dwelling bat species from southern Australia are the ones most likely to be affected. ConclusionsThe risk was assessed as medium for the critically endangered southern bent-winged bat (Miniopterus orianae bassanii), because any increase in mortality could affect its long-term survival. The risk to other species was deemed to range from low to very low, owing to their wider distribution, which extends beyond the P. destructans risk zone. Implications Although Australia’s milder climate may preclude the large mortality events seen in North America, the fungus could still significantly affect Australian bat populations, particularly bent-winged bats. Active surveillance is required to confirm Australia’s continuing WNS-free status, and to detect the presence of P. destructans should it enter the country. Although White-nose Syndrome Response Guidelines have been developed by Wildlife Health Australia to assist response agencies in the event of an incursion of WNS into bats in Australia, these guidelines would be strengthened by further research to characterise Australian cave temperatures and hibernating bat biology, such as length of torpor bouts and movement over winter. Risk-mitigation strategies should focus on education programs that target cavers, show-cave managers and tourists, particularly those who have visited regions where WNS is known to occur.

Methicillin resistance gene diversity in staphylococci isolated from captive and free-ranging wallabies

BACKGROUND

Infection with methicillin-resistant staphylococci (MRS) can be life-threatening in humans and its presence in animals is a cause for public health concern. The aim of this study was to measure the prevalence of MRS in captive and free-ranging wallabies over a 16-month period in South Australia, Australia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighty-nine purified staphylococcal isolates recovered from 98 captive and free-ranging wallabies' anterior nasal swabs were used in this study. All isolates were tested for the presence of the mecA, mecA1, and mecC genes. Multiplex PCR-directed SCCmec-typing, ccrB-typing, and determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration of oxacillin were performed on mec-positive isolates.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In total, 11 non-Staphylococcus aureus MRS were isolated from 7 out of 98 animals, corresponding to a 7.1% carriage rate. The SCCmec types I, III, and V were identified by multiplex PCR and sequencing of the ccrB gene. This is the first report of MRS carriage in both captive and free-ranging wallabies in Australia. These data demonstrate a low prevalence of MRS and no association between wallaby captivity status and MRS carriage could be assigned. These animals may act as a reservoir for the exchange of genetic elements between staphylococci. Furthermore, the mecA genes of animal isolates were identical to that found in human MRS strains and thus the possibility of zoonotic transfer must be considered.

Islands as refuges for threatened species: multispecies translocation and evidence of species interactions four decades on

Australia has one of the worst mammal extinction rates in the world, with translocations to refuge locations increasingly being advocated to help address problems of species decline. Offshore islands can function as these refuges, removing species from threatening processes and providing a source of animals for reintroduction. Historically, the focus of many island translocations in Australia has been the conservation of a single species, with data on long-term translocation success and population dynamics after release generally lacking. Here we examine the results of a multispecies translocation onto Wedge Island, off the South Australian coast 30–40 years ago. Fewer than a dozen individuals of three species – southern hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiorhinus latifrons), black-footed rock-wallaby (Petrogale lateralis pearsonii), and brush-tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata) – were released. All three species have shown substantial population increase and wombat activity across the island has increased exponentially with >700 burrows detected. Substantial levels of co-use of wombat burrows by rock-wallabies and bettongs were observed, providing clear evidence for interspecies interactions. Rock-wallabies showed a significant preference for wombat-active burrows (45% co-used), whereas bettongs showed a significant preference for wombat-inactive burrows (10% used). This study suggests that islands have significant potential for long-term threatened species conservation and that translocation of an ecosystem engineer may increase habitat complexity and help improve habitat suitability for multiple species and thus increase the overall conservation benefit.

Suspected pyrrolizidine alkaloid hepatotoxicosis in wild southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons)

Southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons) inhabiting degraded habitat in South Australia were recently identified with extensive hair loss and dermatitis and were in thin to emaciated body condition. Pathological and clinicopathological investigations on affected juvenile wombats identified a toxic hepatopathy suggestive of plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids, accompanied by photosensitive dermatitis. Hepatic disease was suspected in additional wombats on the basis of serum biochemical analysis. Preliminary toxicological analysis performed on scats and gastrointestinal contents from wombats found in this degraded habitat identified a number of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids consistent with ingestion of Heliotropeum europaeum. Although unpalatable, ingestion may occur by young animals due to decreased availability of preferred forages in degraded habitats and the emergence of weeds around the time of weaning of naive animals. Habitat degradation leading to malnutrition and ingestion of toxic weed species is a significant welfare issue in this species.