Molecular Detection of Hemoplasma in animals in Tamil Nadu, India and Hemoplasma genome analysis

Hemoplasma are small pleomorphic wall-less Gram-positive bacteria that infect erythrocytes of various mammalian hosts. They generally cause asymptomatic or chronic anaemia but occasionally causes overt life-threatening hemolytic anaemia. In the present study, 316 cattle, 115 sheep, 61 goats and 6 buffalo blood samples were collected from various villages or organized farms located in nine districts of Tamil Nadu to detect the hemoplasma by PCR. Overall prevalence of 43.04%, 65.22%, and 44.26% hemoplasma DNA was observed in cattle, sheep and goats, respectively. In total, 21 hemoplasma positive samples were sequenced for 16S rRNA gene which revealed 8 Mycoplasma wenyonii, 11 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos' and one Mycoplasma ovis infection. Sheep blood samples from Chennai district were infected with 'Ca. M. haemobos' whereas sheep sample from Thiruvannamalai district was infected with M. wenyonii. At least 50% genes in the hemoplasma genomes were paralogous genes whose functions were not known. Only 'Ca. M. haemolamae' genome contained one primitive CRISPR system without any cas genes. Antimicrobial resistance genes (ARG) could not be identified in any of the hemoplasma genomes but homologous ARG were identified in all the genomes. Adhesion related gene EF-Tu was detected in all 14 hemoplasma genomes but enolase gene was detected only in 'Ca. M. haemohominis' SWG34-3 genome. This is the first report on the prevalence of hemoplasma infection in cattle, sheep and goat in India.

Establishment of molecular diagnostics targeting the 23S ribosomal RNA gene for the detection of Mycoplasma suis infection in Thai domestic pigs

Mycoplasma (M.) suis is a pathogenic hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. that causes acute hemolytic anemia or chronic infection in pigs. M. suis infection can be diagnosed using several methods, including molecular diagnosis such as conventional PCR (cPCR) and quantitative PCR (qPCR). In these cases, the common target is the 16S rRNA gene; however, this genetic marker cannot distinguish hemoplasma at the species level owing to high sequence identity. Therefore, the 23S rRNA gene has emerged as another target gene. Other than PCR, the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method can be applied for M. suis. The objective of the present study was to establish cPCR, TaqMan qPCR, and LAMP assays in which the 23S rRNA gene is used to detect M. suis infection in Thai domestic pigs. The analytical sensitivity of cPCR was determined as 7.46 × 10⁴ copies/μl of plasmid DNA, whereas those of qPCR and LAMP were 7.46 × 10² copies/μl. There was no cross reaction with other pathogens in any of the assays. To evaluate the diagnostic performance of the assays, they were tested using 173 samples of genomic DNA. The detection percentage of M. suis infection was 24.86% (43/173; 95% CI: 18.61%-31.89%), 28.32% (49/173; 95% CI: 21.75%-35.66%), and 29.48% (51/173; 95% CI: 22.80%-36.88%) using cPCR, qPCR, and LAMP, respectively. Using qPCR as a reference assay, cPCR showed 81.63% sensitivity, 97.58% specificity, and an almost perfect level of agreement (kappa = 0.823). In comparison, LAMP showed 77.55% sensitivity, 89.52% specificity, and a substantial level of agreement (kappa = 0.662). All assays tested here could be applied in veterinary diagnostic laboratories for monitoring porcine health in the herds. Furthermore, the LAMP assay could be used as a screening test in farm practice without the need for any special equipment.

Molecular prevalence of bovine hemoplasmosis in Turkey with first detection of Mycoplasma wenyonii and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos in cattle and water buffalo

Hemoplasma species can cause infection varying from mild to severe in a wide range of hosts, including cattle and water buffalo. Two hemoplasma species, Mycoplasma wenyonii and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, have been reported in cattle and water buffalo from different parts of the world to date. There was a lack of information on the presence and distribution of these pathogens in Turkey despite the negative economic impact on livestock production. This study aimed to develop a duplex PCR assay amplifying the 16S rRNA gene, in order to analyze DNA samples obtained from 297 cattle and 360 water buffaloes, and to determine the molecular prevalence of bovine hemoplasma species in Sivas province. Bovine hemoplasma species were found in 94 of 297 (31.64%) cattle and in 17 of 360 (4.72%) water buffaloes in this study. Randomly selected six positives PCR products (three samples each species) obtained from cattle and water buffaloes were sequenced, and the consensus sequences were uploaded to GenBank. Nucleotide similarity of 96.97-100% was determined between M. wenyonii isolates obtained in this study and those of M. wenyonii isolates present in the GenBank database, whereas C. Mycoplasma haemobos isolates from this study shared 99.04-100% homology with the C. Mycoplasma haemobos isolates uploaded to the GenBank. With the current study, the molecular presence of M. wenyonii and C. Mycoplasma haemobos were documented for the first time in cattle and water buffaloes in Turkey. Considering the rate of prevalence, veterinarians should take precautions against bovine hemoplasma species to protect animal health.

Molecular detection of Mycoplasma wenyonii and its closely related hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. in blood-sucking flies from a buffalo farm in Chachoengsao province, Thailand

Bovine hemoplasmosis is a disease in buffaloes and cattle caused by hemotropic mycoplasmas or hemoplasmas. Only two bovine hemoplasma species, Mycoplasma wenyonii and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, have been described in several countries. Hemoplasmas induce acute hemolytic anemia or chronic infection, leading to production loss. Bovine hemoplasma DNA was also detected in blood-sucking arthropods, suggesting vector transmission in farms. To date, no studies of the molecular detection of bovine hemoplasmas in Thai buffaloes and arthropod vectors have been reported. This study aimed to study the 1-year diversity of hematophagous flies in a buffalo farm located in Chachoengsao province, Thailand, and to investigate the molecular occurrence of bovine hemoplasmas in those flies using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and sequence analyses. A total of 1,488 mosquitoes, 867 stable flies, and 312 tabanid flies were collected during this study. The most abundant mosquitoes, stable flies, and tabanid flies were Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Stomoxys calcitrans, and Tabanus megalops, respectively. A total of 249 genomic DNA samples of flies were tested using a PCR assay based on the 16S rRNA gene; 23.69% (59/249) of the insect samples were positive in this assay. Positive samples (n = 8) were subjected to bidirectional sequencing. The BLAST results showed that only three samples from Stomoxys calcitrans and two samples from Tabanus megalops showed 99.90% and 99.17% similarities to the M. wenyonii isolate B003 (MG948626/Water buffalo/Cuba) and the M. wenyonii isolate C124 (MG948625/Cattle/Cuba), respectively. This molecular occurrence of bovine hemoplasmas in blood-sucking flies suggested that those flies are the mechanical vectors for bovine hemoplasmas in Thailand. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, the sequences of M. wenyonii were likely classified into two subgroups (A and B), suggesting closely related bovine hemoplasma species. Finally, the genetic analysis of the 23S rRNA gene from these two subgroups revealed that subgroup A could be M. wenynoii and subgroup B may be a subspecies of M. wenyonii or another putative novel species. However, further investigation should be conducted in buffaloes, cattle, and blood-sucking flies to gain more 16S rRNA and 23 rRNA gene sequences of bovine hemoplasmas.

Molecular survey and genetic characterization of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from Southern Chile

This study aimed to perform a molecular survey and identification of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in domestic South American Camelids from Southern Chile. Conventional PCR (cPCR) for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. based on 16S rRNA gene (620bp fragment) was performed in 87 EDTA-blood samples taken from 48 llamas (Lama glama) and 39 and alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from to Temuco, La Araucanía region and Valdivia, Los Rios region, Southern Chile. 16S rRNA hemotropic Mycoplasma PCR-positive were sequenced for species identification, phylogenetic and haplotype analyses, and further tested by cPCR targeting a fragment (160-210 bp) of the RNaseP (rnpB) gene. Based upon 16S rRNA cPCR results, the overall hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. occurrence in Southern camelids was 9.2% (8/87 [95% CI (4.0-17.3%)]), with five positive alpacas (12.8%; 5/39 [95% CI (4.3-27.4%)]) and three llamas (6.3%; 3/48 [95% CI (1.7-17.2%)]). All 16S rRNA PCR-positive samples were negative for the rnpB gene. Obtained 16S sequences presented high identity (99-100%) by BLASTn analysis to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' from an alpaca in the United Kingdom. Phylogenetic and haplotype analyses of the 16s rRNA gene showed high similarity among 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' sequences of this study and the ones from North America, Europe, and Asia evidencing a low diversity of Chilean samples, with only one haplotype detected (#1). Haplotype #1 from South American Camelids in Chile was worldwide distributed and observed in North America, Europe, and Asia. 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' detected for the first time in South American camelids in Southern Chile had low diversity and was worldwide spread.

Mycoplasma ovis infection in domestic sheep (Ovis aries) in the United States: Prevalence, distribution, associated risk factors, and associated outcomes

Mycoplasma ovis is a hemotropic bacterium reported to infect sheep, goats, and deer species. Infection in these species can result in anemia, jaundice, and ill-thrift. Although of worldwide distribution, only rare reports of this bacterium in the United States exist. The objectives of this retrospective study were to identify the prevalence and distribution of M. ovis, and identify associated demographic and management risk factors, and reproductive and production outcomes associated with infection on domestic sheep (Ovis aries) operations in the United States. As part of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services' National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) Sheep 2001 and 2011 studies, blood was collected and sera banked from 21,369 ewes in 2001 and 13,128 ewes in 2011. Participating premises were located in 22 states across the United States for each sample year. In 2015 the USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease Research Unit received aliquots of these sera, and DNA was extracted and analyzed by PCR for the presence of M. ovis genomic DNA. Flock presence and mean within-flock prevalence of M. ovis were 73.3% and 23.2%, respectively. Model selection using Mallow's C_p Criterion was used to determine which variables significantly affected flock presence and within-flock prevalence. The final flock presence model included flock size, year of blood collection, region, and vaccine administration. The final within-flock prevalence model included year of blood collection, interaction between flock size and region, and interaction between reported abortions and grazing with sheep from other operations. Medium and large operations had a higher flock presence and within-flock prevalence. Flock presence was higher in operations that administered any vaccines. Operations that reported any abortions and grazed with sheep from other operations had a higher within-flock prevalence.

First detection of Mycoplasma wenyonii in France: Identification, evaluation of the clinical impact and development of a new specific detection assay

Mycoplasma wenyonii, a hemoplasma infecting cattle, was never detected in France. In 2014, evocative inclusions were observed in erythrocytes from cattle presenting milk drops, anemia, and edema in Brittany (France). A survey was then initiated to investigate the epidemiological situation and correlate mycoplasma detection with clinical signs. For this purpose, a new PCR assay targeting polC gene was designed. Comparative results with published PCR assays place this new one as more specific, allowing a one-step diagnosis without further sequencing. A total of 181 cows were included in this study and 4.97% (n = 9) were positive, resulting in the first molecular identification of M. wenyonii in France. All positive animals presented anemia, edema and milk drop. When selecting animals presenting evocative clinical signs, the prevalence of M. wenyonii in Brittany was estimated to 25.6%. Further studies are needed to evaluate the importance of the infection, the implication of arthropods and the existence of asymptomatic carriers.

Acute phase proteins response in cats naturally infected by hemotropic mycoplasmas

Information about the acute phase proteins (APP) response in cats naturally infected with hemoplasmas and in cats co-infected with different species of hemoplasmas is lacking. This study evaluated serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp) and albumin in 48 cats naturally infected with hemoplasmas, including 25 with Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and 23 co-infected with different hemoplasmas agents; and in 10 healthy control cats. Infected cats had significantly higher Hp and lower albumin than controls. Symptomatic cats had significantly higher SAA and Hp, and lower albumin than asymptomatic animals, and also than controls. Asymptomatic cats had significantly higher Hp than controls. Concentrations of APP were not significantly different between single infected and co-infected cats. According with these results, hemoplasmosis should be considered when alterations in APP are detected in diseased cats with compatible clinical signs. Furthermore, a subclinical infection should be considered in apparently healthy cats from endemic areas with increased Hp.

Development of an antigen specific colloidal gold immunochromatographic assay for detection of antibody to M. wenyonii in bovine sera

The goal of this research was to develop a colloidal gold immunochromatographic strip test for detection of antibody to Mycoplasma wenyonii (M. wenyonii) in bovine using specific antigen. M. wenyonii was isolated from blood samples from the spontaneously infected cattle in Hebei province, China. Suspensions of the M. wenyonii antigenic proteins were prepared by freeze-thaw cycles and ultrasonication. Candidate antigens were screened with sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Western blotting. The specific bands of the most antigenic proteins were excised from the gel and were purified by using a gel extraction kit. A colloidal gold immunochromatographic assay using the purified specific proteins as the coating antigen (sp-GICA) was developed for detection of antibody to M. wenyonii. Blood samples from cows in the field were tested for antibody to M. wenyonii by the sp-GICA strip and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) simultaneously to compare the specificity, sensitivity and accuracy. The results showed that the specific proteins bands with sufficient immunoreactivity have been identified. The apparent molecular weights of the proteins were 115 kDa and 60 kDa, respectively. The stability and reproducibility were quite excellent after the storage of the strip at room temperature for 5 months. This sp-GICA showed 95.48% (148/155), 92.86% (39/42) and 94.92% (187/197) in terms of specificity, sensitivity and accuracy compared to ELISA. The sp-GICA described here shows excellent agreement with ELISA and it is shown to be a simple, convenient, specific and highly sensitive assay for detection of serum antibodies to M. wenyonii.

Occurrence of hemotropic mycoplasmas in non-human primates (Alouatta caraya, Sapajus nigritus and Callithrix jacchus) of southern Brazil

Hemoplasmas, the erythrocyte-associated mycoplasmas, have been detected in several primates, causing mostly subclinical infection. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of hemoplasma infection in captive and free-ranging monkeys from southern Brazil, as well as factors and hematological abnormalities associated with infection. Blood samples from 40 non-human primates (NHP) were tested for hemoplasmas and coinfections. An overall of 10/40 (25.0%) NHP tested positive for hemoplasmas using PCR-based assays, including 9/14 (64.3%) black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) and 1/24 (4.2%) black-horned capuchin (Sapajus nigritus). Infection was not statistically associated with anemia, but wild-born monkeys and male black howler monkeys were more likely to be positive when compared with captive-born animals and female black howler monkeys, respectively. The sequences from the black howler monkey hemoplasma were similar (94% identity) to the squirrel monkey hemoplasma ("Candidatus Mycoplasma kahanei") and were phylogenetically located in a different cluster when compared to the human hemoplasma ("Candidatus Mycoplasma haemohominis").

Occurrence of canine hemotropic mycoplasmas in domestic dogs from urban and rural areas of the Valdivia Province, southern Chile

This is the first study to investigate the occurrence, risk factors and hematological findings of hemoplasmas in dogs from Chile. Complete blood count and 16S rRNA conventional PCR for Mycoplasma spp. were performed in 278 blood samples from rural (n=139) and urban (n=139) dogs in Valdivia. Real time 16S rRNA PCR (qPCR) allowed species identification. Mycoplasma spp. occurrence was 24.8%. 'Candidatus M. haematoparvum' (CMhp) was identified in 12.2% and Mycoplasma haemocanis (Mhc) in 11.9% dogs. It was not possible to identify species in two Mycoplasma spp. samples by qPCR. Sequencing allowed identifying one of them as 'Candidatus M. turicensis' (CMt). Frequency in rural localities was higher (41.7%) than in urban (7.9%). Rural locality, maleness and older age were risk factors for hemoplasmosis. Hemoplasma-positive dogs had a higher total protein. This is the first report of Mhc, CMhp and CMt in dogs from Chile, with a high occurrence in rural localities.

Molecular detection of Mycoplasma haemomuris subspecies using dnaK-targeted real-time PCR with SYBR Green I and melting curve analysis

Hemoplasmas cause severe infections in mammals, but these pathogens are difficult to detect and identify at the species and subspecies level because of the need for time-consuming sequence based methods. Here, we used real-time PCR with SYBR Green I targeting of the dnaK gene followed by standard melting curve analysis to achieve rapid detection and differentiation of the Mycoplasma haemomuris subspecies 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. musculi' and 'Candidatus M. haemomuris subsp. ratti'. The melting temperatures of the PCR products, 84.63 ± 0.14 °C for 'Candidatus M. haemomuris subsp. musculi', and 80.72 ± 0.16 °C for 'Candidatus M. haemomuris subsp. ratti', provided clear differentiation between them. Murine hemoplasma DNA samples, which were used as references, were confirmed for species by an analysis of 16S rRNA sequences. The protocol described herein provides a new rapid detection and identification method suitable for use with two recognized subspecies of M. haemomuris.

Intravascular hemolysis associated with Candidatus Mycoplasma hematoparvum in a non-splenectomized dog in the south region of Iran

A 2-year-old male Pekingese dog was referred to Shiraz University's Veterinary Teaching Hospital for anorexia and depression. The case had no history of surgery. Physical examination revealed no abnormalities except mild depression and fever. Small, coccoid, epicellular bacteria were detected on erythrocytes by microscopic examination of the Giemsa-stained blood smears. Abnormalities noted in the complete blood count included regenerative anemia characterized by a marked reticulocytosis. Examination of the plasma showed visual evidence of slight intra vascular hemolysis. In addition, Howell-Jolly bodies, nucleated RBCs, increased immature neutrophils and thrombocytosis were found in this case. The urine was strongly positive for bilirubin, and the urine sediment had abundant bilirubin crystals. For polymerase chain reaction (PCR) purpose, total DNA was extracted from blood sample collected from dog. PCR was positive and phylogenetic analysis of concatenated data showed our isolate clustered within Candidatus Mycoplasma hematoparvum group. Treatment was performed by oral ciprofloxacin and prednisolone. The clinical signs improved after three days. Two month follow-up showed no recurrence. In conclusion, hemoplasmosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis in dogs with hemolytic process and pyrexia. The PCR evaluation for hemoplasma DNA should be included in the investigation of such cases to enable the rapid detection of this infection, which may be more common than previously estimated. Besides, ciprofloxacin might have an effect on treatment of hemoplasma in dogs, however, conducting further case studies are necessary to recommend successful treatment.

Novel hemotropic Mycoplasma species in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

Globally, hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. are emerging or re-emerging zoonotic pathogens that affect livestock, wildlife, companion animals, and humans, potentially causing serious and economically important disease problems. Little is known about hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. prevalence, host-specificity, or route of transmission in most species, including wildlife. DNA amplification by PCR targeting the 16SrRNA and the RNaseP genes was used to establish the presence and prevalence of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in a white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) population in eastern North Carolina. Sixty-five deer (89%) tested positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. where sequence analysis of the 16SsRNA and the RNaseP genes indicated the presence of at least three distinct species. This study represents the first detection of three distinct hemotropic Mycoplasma species in white-tailed deer and the first report of two novel hemotropic Mycoplasma species.