Hematopoietic colony-stimulating factors in head and neck cancers: Recent advances and therapeutic challenges

Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are key cytokines responsible for the production, maturation, and mobilization of the granulocytic and macrophage lineages from the bone marrow, which have been gaining attention for playing pro- and/or anti-tumorigenic roles in cancer. Head and neck cancers (HNCs) represent a group of heterogeneous neoplasms with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Treatment for HNCs is still limited even with the advancements in cancer immunotherapy. Novel treatments for patients with recurrent and metastatic HNCs are urgently needed. This article provides an in-depth review of the role of hematopoietic cytokines such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and interleukin-3 (IL-3; also known as multi-CSF) in the HNCs tumor microenvironment. We have reviewed current results from clinical trials using CSFs as adjuvant therapy to treat HNCs patients, and also clinical findings reported to date on the therapeutic application of CSFs toxicities arising from chemoradiotherapy.

Altered IL-3 and lipocalin-2 levels are associated with the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common mental ailment and is the primary reason for disability. It manifests a severe impact on moods, thoughts, and physical health. At present, this disorder has become a concern in the field of public health. Alteration of neurochemicals is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of many psychiatric disorders. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate serum IL-3 and lipocalin-2 in MDD patients and healthy controls (HCs).

METHOD

We included a total of 376 participants in this study. Among them, 196 were MDD patients, and 180 were age-sex-matched HCs. MDD patients were recruited from the Psychiatry Department of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), but the controls were from different parts of Dhaka. All study participants were evaluated by a psychiatrist using the DSM-5 criteria. To assess the severity of the depression, we used the Hamilton depression (Ham-D) rating scale. Serum IL-3 and lipocalin-2 levels were measured using commercially available enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay kits (ELISA kits).

RESULTS

According to this study, we observed elevated serum levels of IL-3 (1,024.73 ± 29.84 pg/mL) and reduced levels of serum lipocalin-2 (29.019 ± 2.073 ng/mL) in MDD patients compared to HCs (911.11 ± 20.55 pg/mL and 48.065 ± 3.583 ng/mL, respectively). No associations between serum levels of IL-3 and lipocalin-2 and depression severity were observed in patients.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the present findings, alterations of serum IL-3 and lipocalin might be associated with the pathogenesis of MDD. These results support that altered serum neurochemicals can serve as early risk assessment markers for depression. Further interventional studies are recommended for a better understanding of the role of IL-3 and lipocalin-2 in the pathophysiology of depression.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells promote the formation of abdominal aortic aneurysms through the IL-3-ICOSL-ICOS axis

Th17 cells are powerful inflammation promoters in the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs). Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) can promote the differentiation of Th17 cells in chronic inflammatory autoimmune injury. Here, we aim to examine whether MDSCs regulate the differentiation of Th17 cells to participate in the development of AAA. We demonstrated an abnormal accumulation of MDSCs in AAA patients, which was positively associated with Th17 cells. We established angiotensin II-induced apolipoprotein E knockout mice and found the impaired immunosuppressive function of M-MDSCs. After systemic injection of anti-Gr-1 antibody in AAA mice to deplete circulating MDSCs, AAA formation and the differentiation of Th17 cells were abolished, and the overexpression of inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS) on Th17 cells was reversed accordingly. Regulating the expression of ICOS ligand (ICOSL) on MDSCs affects the differentiation of Th17 cells. The adoptive transfer of ICOSLlowMDSCs in AAA mice inhibited the differentiation of Th17 cells and the development of AAA. Meanwhile, rIL-3 promoted the survival and immunosuppressive dysfunction of MDSCs, upregulated ICOSL expression on MDSCs by inhibiting activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, and regulated MDSCs to promote the differentiation of Th17 cells via the ICOSL-ICOS axis. An increase in serum IL-3, ICOSL+MDSCs, and ICOS+Th17 cells was detected in AAA patients, and IL-3 levels were positively correlated with the proportion of ICOSL+MDSC cells. In conclusion, we uncovered a pivotal role of MDSCs in promoting the differentiation of Th17 cells through the IL-3-ICOSL-ICOS axis during AAA, providing an important theoretical basis for understanding the pathogenesis of AAA.

Interleukin-3 is associated with sTREM2 and mediates the correlation between amyloid-β and tau pathology in Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Dysfunction of glial cell communication is involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, and the recent study reported that astrocytic secreted interleukin-3 (IL-3) participated in astrocyte-microglia crosstalk and restricted AD pathology in mice, but the effect of IL-3 on the pathological progression of AD in human is still unclear.

METHODS

A total of 311 participants with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) IL-3, soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (sTREM2), and AD biomarkers were included from the Alzheimer's disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). We assessed the associations of IL-3 with sTREM2 and AD biomarkers at baseline, and with cognitive change in longitudinal study. The mediation models were used to explore the potential mechanism of how IL-3 affects AD pathology.

RESULTS

We found that CSF IL-3 was significantly associated with CSF sTREM2 and CSF AD core biomarkers (Aβ42, p-tau, and t-tau) at baseline, and was also markedly related to cognitive decline in longitudinal analysis. Moreover, mediation analysis revealed that CSF IL-3 modulated the level of CSF sTREM2 and contributed to tau pathology (as measured by CSF p-tau/t-tau) and subsequent cognitive decline. In addition, Aβ pathology (as measured by CSF Aβ42) affected the development of tau pathology partly by modifying the levels of CSF IL-3 and CSF sTREM2. Furthermore, the effect of Aβ pathology on cognitive decline was partially mediated by the pathway from CSF IL-3 and CSF sTREM2 to tau pathology.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide evidence to suggest that IL-3 is linked to sTREM2 and mediates the correlation between Aβ pathology to tau pathology. It indicates that IL-3 may be a major factor in the spreading from Aβ pathology to tau pathology to cognitive impairment.

Longitudinal Zeolite-Iron Oxide Nanocomposite Deposited Capacitance Biosensor for Interleukin-3 in Sepsis Detection

Sepsis is an extreme condition involving a physical response to severe microbial infection and causes fatal and life-threatening issues. Sepsis generates during the chemicals release with the immune system into the bloodstream for fighting against an infection, which causes the inflammation and leads to the medical emergency. A complexed longitudinal zeolite and iron oxide nanocomposite was extracted from coal mine fly ash and utilized to improve the surface characteristics of the capacitance biosensor to identify sepsis attacks. Anti-interleukin-3 (anti-IL-3) antibody was attached to the zeolite- and iron oxide-complexed capacitance electrode surface through an amine linker to interact with the sepsis biomarker IL-3. The morphological and chemical components of the nanocomplex were investigated by FESEM, FETEM, and EDX analyses. At approximately 30 nm, the longitudinal zeolite and iron oxide nanocomposite aided in attaining the limit of IL-3 detection of 3 pg/mL on the linear curve, with a regression coefficient (R2) of 0.9673 [y = 1.638x - 1.1847]. A lower detection limit was achieved in the dose-dependent range (3-100 pg/mL) due to the higher amount of antibody immobilization on the sensing surface due to the nanomaterials and the improved surface current. Furthermore, control experiments with relevant biomolecules did not show capacitance changes, and spiked IL-3 in human serum increased capacitance, indicating the specific and selective detection of IL-3. This study identifies and quantifies IL-3 via potentially useful methods and helps in diagnosing sepsis attack.

Evaluation of IL-3, IL-5, and IL-6 concentration in the follicular fluid of women with endometriosis: A cross-sectional study

Background

Endometriosis is associated with abnormal immunologic responses and combined inflammatory and anti-inflammatory conditions.

Objective

This study aims to investigate follicular fluid (FF) concentration of interleukin (IL)-3, IL-5, and IL-6 in women with and without endometriosis.

Materials and Methods

In this cross-sectionalstudy 68 women who were referred to the in vitro fertilization center of Imam Reza hospital in Mashhad during 2018 were selected randomly. Leaves of cytokines in the FF samples were evaluated in the endometriosis and the control group (n = 34/each). The diagnostic accuracy of cytokines and clinical characteristics were evaluated.

Results

IL-3 and IL-6 were significantly changed in the FF of the women with endometriosis compared with the control group (p = 0.04, and p < 0.01, respectively), and the mean concentration of IL-5 in the endometriosis group was lower than in the control group (p = 0.5), but this was not significant. There were significant differences in the menstrual cycle, dyspareunia, and dysmenorrhea between the groups (p < 0.01, p = 0.04, and p = 0.02, respectively). The diagnostic accuracy of IL-3 and IL-6 in the FF was low, with the area under the curve of 0.614 and 0.645, respectively.

Conclusion

Although none of the cytokines had a predictive value for endometriosis, the decreased levels of IL-3 and increased levels of IL-6 in the FF samples of women with endometriosis, and risk factors, including irregular menstrual cycle, dyspareunia, and dysmenorrhea, could be associated with the pathogenesis of this painful disease.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 5a (STAT5a) represses mitochondrial gene expression through direct binding to mitochondrial DNA

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) proteins are latent cytoplasmic transcription factors essential for cytokine signaling. Our previous study showed that interleukin-3 (IL-3) induced STAT5 translocation to mitochondria and binding to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in vitro. In this report, we further demonstrated in vivo binding of endogenous STAT5a to mtDNA transcriptional control region and reduced gene expression from all three mtDNA promoters after IL-3 stimulation. To specifically define the function of mitochondrial STAT5a, we generated mitochondrial-targeting wild-type and mutant STAT5a proteins. Compared with non-targeting STAT5a, mitochondrial-targeting wild-type STAT5a significantly reduced mitochondrial gene expression in transfected HEK293 cells. The level of attenuation was amplified in cells expressing constitutively active STAT5a, but abrogated in cells expressing DNA-binding-defective STAT5a. STAT5a-mediated repression of mtDNA expression also positively correlated with STAT5a binding to the E2 subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC-E2), both a gate-keeping metabolic enzyme and a component of mtDNA nucleoid in mitochondrial matrix. Metabolic shift away from mitochondrial respiration is known in many cytokine-stimulated cells and cancer cells. STAT5a-mediated repression of mitochondrial gene expression and its interaction with PDC-E2 may provide important insights into its underlying mechanisms.

Assessment of faithful interleukin-3 production by novel bicistronic interleukin-3 reporter mice

Interleukin-3 (IL-3) is an important hematopoietic growth factor and immunregulatory cytokine. Although activated T helper cells represent a main source of IL-3, other cell types have been reported to express this cytokine. However, precise identification and quantification of the cells that produce IL-3 in vivo have not been performed. Therefore, we used a CRISPR/Cas approach to engineer mice containing a bicistronic mRNA linking a readily identifiable reporter, enhanced green fluorescent protein (ZsGreen1), to IL-3 expression. To characterize these novel reporter mice, we first examined ZsGreen1 expression by CD4 T cells subsets primed and activated in vitro. We found that activated Th1 cells expressed ∼4-fold higher levels of ZsGreen1 as compared to Th0 and Th2 cells. Endogenous IL-3 expression remained intact although reporter Th1 cells secreted ∼33 % less IL-3 than similarly activated wild-type cells. To characterize the ability of reporter mice to accurately mark IL-3-producing cells in vivo, we infected mice with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. Low but significant numbers of ZsGreen1+ CD4 T cells were detected in the mesenteric lymph nodes and lung following both primary and secondary infection. No difference in basophil and intestinal mast cell numbers were observed between infected reporter and wild-type mice indicating that reporter mice secreted IL-3 levels in vivo that results in IL-3-driven biological activities which are indistinguishable from those observed in corresponding wild-type mice. These IL-3 reporter mice will be a valuable resource to investigate IL-3-dependent immune responses in vivo.

Tagraxofusp for Blastic Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Neoplasm

Tagraxofusp, a CD123-targeted immunotoxin, is the first FDA-approved treatment for patients 2 years and older with blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm (BPDCN). It has been shown to be safe and effective in treatment-naïve and previously treated adult patients, with high rates of successful bridging to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. The pediatric experience is more limited but demonstrates safety. Given the risk of potentially fatal capillary leak syndrome with tagraxofusp, judicious patient selection is recommended. Combination therapy with hypomethylating agents and/or BCL-2 inhibitors are rational next lines of investigation, especially in patients ineligible to receive high-dose chemotherapy.

Interleukin-3 plays a vital role in hyperoxic acute lung injury in mice via mediating inflammation

Background

Interleukin (IL)-3 amplifies inflammation. However, the effect of IL-3 in acute lung injury (ALI), an acute inflammatory disease, is unclear. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that IL-3 plays an important role in hyperoxia-induced ALI.

Methods

Hyperoxic ALI was induced in wild-type (WT) and IL-3 gene disrupted (IL-3^−/−) mice by exposure to 100% O₂ for 72 h.

Results

Hyperoxia increased IL-3 levels in plasma and lung tissues in WT mice. Pulmonary inflammation and edema were detected by histological assay in WT mice exposed to 100% O₂ for 72 h. However, the hyperoxia-induced lung histological changes were improved in IL-3^−/− mice. The hyperoxia-induced elevation of neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids and circulation were reduced in IL-3^−/− mice. Meanwhile, the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-6 were suppressed in IL-3^−/− mice compared with WT mice. Moreover, the hyperoxia-induced the activation of IκBα kinase (IKK) β, IκBα phosphorylation, and nuclear factor-κB translocation were inhibited in IL-3^−/− mice compared with WT mice.

Conclusions

Our results suggest IL-3 is a potential therapeutic target for hyperoxia-induced ALI.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12890-018-0725-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Interleukin-3, symptoms and cognitive deficits in first-episode drug-naïve and chronic medicated schizophrenia

Previous studies consistently showed that IL-3 signaling may be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. However, investigations of associations between IL-3 and the neurocognitive impairments are lacking, including the study of how this may vary with stage of illness. We recruited 45 first-episode drug-naïve (FE-Sz), 35 chronic medicated schizophrenia (Ch-Sz) and 40 healthy controls (HC) and examined the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) and serum IL-3. Altered serum IL-3 levels were found in both patient groups compared with HC group (both p < 0.001). There were significantly lower neurocognitive scores on the RBANS and nearly all of its five subscales, except for Visuospatial/Constructional index in both FE-Sz and Ch-Sz patients vs healthy controls. Moreover, a significant reduction in Immediate memory index (p = 0.021) and a trend-level reduction in RBANS total score (p = 0.094) in Ch-Sz than FE-Sz patients. Interestingly, there was a significant negative correlation between IL-3 and the Immediate memory index only in Ch-Sz patients (p = 0.03). Our findings showed that neurocognitive impairments present in schizophrenia emerge during the first episode with further diminished functioning with disease progression, and IL-3 may be involved in the immediate memory deficits in the chronic phase of schizophrenia.

Interleukin-3 stimulates matrix metalloproteinase 12 production from macrophages promoting thoracic aortic aneurysm/dissection

Thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection (TAAD) is due to degeneration of the aorta and causes a high mortality rate, while molecular mechanisms for the development of TAAD are still not completely understood. In the present study, 3-aminopropionitrile (BAPN) treatment was used to induce TAAD mouse model. Through transcriptome analysis, we found the expression levels of genes associated with interleukin-3 (IL-3) signaling pathway were up-regulated during TAAD development in mouse, which were validated by real-time PCR. IL-3 positive cells were increased in TAAD mouse aortas, especially for smooth muscle cells (SMCs). IL-3 deficiency reduced BAPN-induced TAAD formation. We then examined the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) expression during TAAD formation in both wild-type and IL-3 deficient mice, showing that MMP12 were significantly down-regulated in IL-3 deficient aortas. Mechanistically, we found recombinant IL-3 could increase MMP12 production and activity from macrophages in vitro Silencing of IL-3 receptor β, which was mainly expressed in macrophages but not SMCs, diminished the activation of c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK)/extracellular-regulated protein kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2)/AP-1 signals, and decreased MMP12 expression in IL-3 stimulated macrophages. Moreover, both circulating and aortic inflammation were decreased in IL-3 deficient aortas. Taken together, our results demonstrated that IL-3 stimulated the production of MMP12 from macrophages by a JNK- and ERK1/2-dependent AP-1 pathway, contributing to TAAD formation. Thus, the IL-3/IL-3Rβ/MMP12 signals activation may be an important pathological mechanism for progression of TAAD.

Novel antibody-cytokine fusion proteins featuring granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, interleukin-3 and interleukin-4 as payloads

Neutrophils can strongly influence disease activity in cancer and in chronic inflammation. Here, we report for the first time the construction and characterization of antibody-fusion proteins featuring granulocyte-colony stimulating factor and interleukin-3 as payloads capable of enhancing neutrophil activity and a novel antibody-interleukin-4 fusion protein with neutrophil inhibitory potential. We used the F8 antibody specific to the alternatively-spliced extra domain A (EDA) of fibronectin as a targeting agent, since the cognate antigen is strongly upregulated in diseases characterized by angiogenesis. The fusion proteins GCSF-F8, F8-IL3 and F8-IL4-F8, were cloned, expressed, and their targeting ability assessed, exhibiting preferential tumor uptake with tumor:blood ratios at 24 h after injection of 3.3, 18.2 and 27.3, respectively. In F9 tumor bearing-mice GCSF-F8 and F8-IL3 did not provide a therapeutic benefit, while F8-IL4-F8 showed a potent tumor growth retardation. In the collagen-induced model of arthritis, GCSF-F8 and F8-IL3 induced a worsening of the disease, while F8-IL4-F8 slowed arthritis progression but, surprisingly, exhibited substantial toxicity when used in combination with dexamethasone. Collectively, the results indicate that the novel fusion proteins could be expressed and efficiently delivered to the site of disease. However, they were not superior to other antibody-cytokine fusions previously described by our laboratory.

Interleukin-3 enhances the migration of human mesenchymal stem cells by regulating expression of CXCR4

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent an important source for cell therapy in regenerative medicine. MSCs have shown promising results for repair of damaged tissues in various degenerative diseases in animal models and also in human clinical trials. However, little is known about the factors that could enhance the migration and tissue-specific engraftment of exogenously infused MSCs for successful regenerative cell therapy. Previously, we have reported that interleukin-3 (IL-3) prevents bone and cartilage damage in animal models of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Also, IL-3 promotes the differentiation of human MSCs into functional osteoblasts and increases their in-vivo bone regenerative potential in immunocompromised mice. However, the role of IL-3 in migration of MSCs is not yet known. In the present study, we investigated the role of IL-3 in migration of human MSCs under both in-vitro and in-vivo conditions.

METHODS

MSCs isolated from human bone marrow, adipose and gingival tissues were used for in-vitro cell migration, motility and wound healing assays in the presence or absence of IL-3. The effect of IL-3 preconditioning on expression of chemokine receptors and integrins was examined by flow cytometry and real-time PCR. The in-vivo migration of IL-3-preconditioned MSCs was investigated using a subcutaneous matrigel-releasing stromal cell-derived factor-1 alpha (SDF-1α) model in immunocompromised mice.

RESULTS

We observed that human MSCs isolated from all three sources express IL-3 receptor-α (IL-3Rα) both at gene and protein levels. IL-3 significantly enhances in-vitro migration, motility and wound healing abilities of MSCs. Moreover, IL-3 preconditioning upregulates expression of chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 4 (CXCR4) on MSCs, which leads to increased migration of cells towards SDF-1α. Furthermore, CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 decreases the migration of IL-3-treated MSCs towards SDF-1α. Importantly, IL-3 also induces in-vivo migration of MSCs towards subcutaneously implanted matrigel-releasing-SDF-1α in immunocompromised mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates for the first time that IL-3 has an important role in enhancing the migration of human MSCs through regulation of the CXCR4/SDF-1α axis. These findings suggest a potential role of IL-3 in improving the efficacy of MSCs in regenerative cell therapy.

Do IL-3/GM-CSF effect on the myofibroblastic differentiation of human adipose derived stromal cells?

BACKGROUND

Capsular contracture is an incurable complication after silicone-based implant surgery. Myofibroblast is the predominant cell in the contracted capsule. We hypothesized that human adipose derive stromal cells (hASCs) together with fibroblast may show a similar phenotypic characteristics of myofibroblast after the treatment of inflammatory cytokines in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Interleukin 3 (IL-3) and granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) were treated in the culture of hASCs and HDFs. Lyn peptide inhibitor was applied as an inhibitor. The changes of cell surface markers (CD105, CD73, CD34, CD45, CD31, CD325 and CD146) were assessed. The expression of various cytokines related to wound contraction were tested such as TGF-β, α-SMA, HGF, FGF, ENT-1, and TSP-1. Myo-D, α-SMA, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were evaluated by blotting and immunocytochemical staining. The collagen-gel contraction assay was performed for the functional contraction of myofibroblastic phenotype.

RESULTS

The expression of α-SMA, Myo-D and GFAP after the treatment of IL-3/GM-CSF showed similar results in hASCs and HDFs. Enhanced expression of TGF- β was observed in HDFs and the increase of ENT-1 and TSP-1 was significant in hASCs. Collagen-gel with HDFs contracted significantly within 24h after the treatment of IL-3/GM-CSF, and the contraction was inhibited by Lyn peptide inhibitor. But in hASCs, the gel-contraction was not significant.

CONCLUSION

IL-3/ GM-CSF effected on the myofibroblastic differentiation of hASCs as well as it did on HDFs. But hASCs did not show the phenotypic gel-contraction within 24h.

Altered serum levels of interleukin-3 in first-episode drug-naive and chronic medicated schizophrenia

Elevated serum levels of Interleukin-3 (IL-3), a major component of the cytokines, have been observed in chronic and medicated patients with schizophrenia, but this elevation may reflect either or both medication and illness chronicity effects. Thus, we compared serum IL-3 levels in first-episode drug-naive (FEDN) to chronic medicated patients with schizophrenia and examined the association of IL-3 with their psychopathological symptoms. Serum IL-3 levels were assessed in 55 FEDN patients, 52 chronic medicated patients and 43 healthy controls. Schizophrenia symptomatology was assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Serum IL-3 levels were measured by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We found significantly lower IL-3 levels in FEDN patients than both chronic patients and healthy controls (both p<0.001), while IL-3 levels in chronic patients were markedly higher than in healthy controls. No significant association was observed between IL-3 and any clinical psychopathology in FEDN patients; however, we found a significant correlation between serum IL-3 levels and the PANSS general psychopathology subscore in chronic medicated patients (p<0.05). Decreased IL-3 levels in FEDN patients suggest that suppressed immune function may be associated with developing schizophrenia, but as the disease progresses IL-3 levels increase perhaps related to medication treatment or other factors that occur during chronic illness.

Increased IL-3 serum levels in chronic patients with schizophrenia: Associated with psychopathology

Schizophrenia is associated with the inflammation-related pathways, including aberrant cytokines levels. In this study, we examined the association of serum IL-3 levels with psychopahological symtoms in chronic schizophrenia. Serum IL-3 levels were assessed in 42 patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and compared to 43 healthy control subjects matched for age and gender. Schizophrenia symptomatology was assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), and serum IL-3 levels were measured by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Our results showed that IL-3 levels were significantly increased in patients with chronic schizophrenia compared to healthy control subjects. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between the IL-3 levels and the PANSS general subscore. Moreover, IL-3 levels were significantly positively correlated with depressive subscore. Our results suggested that IL-3 related pathway is associated with psychopathology of schizophrenia patients.

Elevated IL-3 and IL-12p40 levels in the lower airway of infants with RSV-induced bronchiolitis correlate with recurrent wheezing

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is the first cause of hospitalization due to bronchiolitis in infants. RSV bronchiolitis has been linked to asthma and recurrent wheezing, however the mechanisms behind this association have not been elucidated. Here, we evaluated the cytokine and chemokine profiles in the airways in infants with RSV bronchiolitis. Nasopharyngeal Aspirates (NPA) and Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluids (BALF) from infants hospitalized due to RSV bronchiolitis and healthy controls were analyzed for cytokine and chemokine production. We observed elevated levels of Th2 cytokines (IL-3, IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13), pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-β, MCP-1/CCL2, MIP-1α/CCL3 and IL-8/CXCL8) in BALF from infants with RSV bronchiolitis, as compared to controls. We found a direct correlation of IL-3 and IL-12p40 levels with the development of recurrent wheezing later in life. These results suggest that IL-3 and IL-12p40 could be considered as molecular predictors for recurrent wheezing due to RSV infection.

Cloning and expression of recombinant equine interleukin-3 and its effect on sulfidoleukotriene and cytokine production by equine peripheral blood leukocytes

Interleukin-3 is a growth and differentiation factor for various hematopoietic cells. IL-3 also enhances stimulus-dependent release of mediators and cytokine production by mature basophils. Function of IL-3 has not been studied in horses because of lack of horse-specific reagents. Our aim was to produce recombinant equine IL-3 and test its effect on sulfidoleukotriene and cytokine production by equine peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL). Equine IL-3 was cloned, expressed in E. coli and purified. PBL of 19 healthy and 20 insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH)-affected horses were stimulated with Culicoides nubeculosus extract with or without IL-3. Sulfidoleukotriene (sLT) production was measured in supernatants by ELISA and mRNA expression of IL-4, IL-13 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) assessed in cell lysate by quantitative real-time PCR. Recombinant equine IL-3 (req-IL-3) had a dose dependent effect on sLT production by stimulated equine PBL and significantly increased IL-4, IL-13 and TSLP expression compared to non-primed cells. IL-3 priming significantly increased Culicoides-induced sLT production in IBH-affected but not in non-affected horses and was particularly effective in young IBH-affected horses (≤ 3 years). A functionally active recombinant equine IL-3 has been produced which will be useful for future immunological studies in horses. It will also allow improving the sensitivity of cellular in vitro tests for allergy diagnosis in horses.

Interleukin-3 plays dual roles in osteoclastogenesis by promoting the development of osteoclast progenitors but inhibiting the osteoclastogenic process

Interleukin (IL)-3, a multilineage hematopoietic growth factor, is implicated in the regulation of osteoclastogenesis. However, the role of IL-3 in osteoclastogenesis remains controversial; whereas early studies showed that IL-3 stimulates osteoclastogenesis, recent investigations demonstrated that IL-3 inhibits osteoclast formation. The objective of this work is to further address the role of IL-3 in osteoclastogenesis. We found that IL-3 treatment of bone marrow cells generated a population of cells capable of differentiating into osteoclasts in tissue culture dishes in response to the stimulation of the monocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) and the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL). The IL-3-dependent hematopoietic cells were able to further proliferate and differentiate in response to M-CSF stimulation and the resulting cells were also capable of forming osteoclasts with M-CSF and RANKL treatment. Interestingly, IL-3 inhibits M-CSF-/RANKL-induced differentiation of the IL-3-dependent hematopoietic cells into osteoclasts. The flow cytometry analysis indicates that while IL-3 treatment of bone marrow cells slightly affected the percentage of osteoclast precursors in the surviving populations, it considerably increased the percentage of osteoclast precursors in the populations after subsequent M-CSF treatment. Moreover, osteoclasts derived from IL-3-dependent hematopoietic cells were fully functional. Thus, we conclude that IL-3 plays dual roles in osteoclastogenesis by promoting the development of osteoclast progenitors but inhibiting the osteoclastogenic process. These findings provide a better understanding of the role of IL-3 in osteoclastogenesis.