How many threatened lice are there? An approximation to the red list of the Spanish Phthiraptera

Although the idea of conserving parasites as part of biodiversity is not new, these in general and lice in particular, are not included in the threatened list of invertebrate fauna. Assuming that the conservation status of a lice species is similar to that of its host, the number of threatened lice within the Spanish entomofauna was estimated based on the known host-lice assemblages. The lice parasitizing many of the Spanish birds and mammals are unknown. Overall, I found 6 extinct (EX) species; 4 critically endangered (CR); 15 endangered (EN), 7 vulnerable (VU) and 1 species near threatened (NT), at regional level. Since the status of hosts varies through time and space, it, (together with those of their lice, must be periodically updated. In addition to a number of reasons that justify the conservation of parasites, lice deserve being conserved, particularly, because of their scientific value.

Chewing lice of wild birds in Iran: new data and a checklist of avian louse species reported in Iran

Between September 2019 and December 2023, a total of 612 wild birds representing 16 orders, 33 families, 60 genera, and 78 species from nine provinces of Iran with different climates namely Hamedan (n = 54), Sistan-va-Baluchestan (n = 372), Kerman (n = 73), South Khorasan (n = 52), Mazandaran (n = 7), Chaharmahal-va-Bakhtiari (n = 2), Gilan (n = 2), Golestan (n = 18), North Khorasan (n = 9), and Razavi Khorasan (n = 23) were examined for chewing lice infestation. Naked eye examination revealed that 58 birds (9.5%) were infested with at least one chewing louse species. Collected lice specimens belonged to 28 species from the families Philopteridae, Menoponidae and Laemobothriidae including Strigiphilus strigis (n = 55, 15.6%), Falcolipeurus quadripustulatus (n = 41, 11.6%), Craspedorrhynchus platystomus (n = 40, 11.3%), Colpocephalum turbinatum (n = 36, 10.2%), Laemobothrion maximum (n = 25, 7.1%), Nosopon lucidum (n = 20, 5.6%), Degeeriella fulva (n = 18, 5.1%), Colpocephalum eucarenum (n = 16, 4.5%), Laemobothrion vulturis (n = 15, 4.2%), Anaticola crassicornis (n = 13, 3.7%), Craspedorrhynchus aquilinus (n = 9, 2.5%), Degeeriella fusca (n = 7, 2.0%), Aegypoecus trigonoceps (n = 7, 2.0%), Quadraceps obscurus (n = 6, 1.7%), Colpocephalum impressum (n = 6, 1.7%), Trinoton querquedulae (n = 6, 1.7%), Colpocephalum heterosoma (n = 5, 1.4%), Colpocephalum nanum (n = 5, 1.4%), Lunaceps holophaeus (n = 4, 1.1%), Quadraceps spp. (n = 4, 1.1%), Actornithophilus uniseriatus (n = 2, 0.6%), Nosopon chanabense (n = 2, 0.6%), Actornithophilus cornutus (n = 1, 0.3%), Cuclotogaster heterographus (n = 1, 0.3%), Falcolipeurus suturalis (n = 1, 0.3%), Laemobothrion atrum (n = 1, 0.3%), Colpocephalum gypsi (n = 1, 0.3%), and Rallicola cuspidatus (n = 1, 0.3%). All of these species except six, i.e., Trinoton spp., C. aquilinus, L. vulturis, L. maximum, C. impressum, C. turbinatum, and C. heterographus are recorded for the first time from Iran. This study is the largest epidemiological study to date performed in the country. Data reported herein contribute to our knowledge about diversity of avian chewing lice from wild birds in Iran. In this paper, an updated checklist of louse species reported from Iran according to their avian hosts is presented.

Distribution of phoretic mites and lice in Pseudolynchia canariensis living on pigeons and the relationship with seasonality, carrier sex, plumage coloration and age of definitive hosts

Among the parasites, some groups that have a limited capacity for locomotion, such as mites and lice, the transmission is challenging to win. These ectoparasites disperse through direct contact between hosts or, in some cases, through phoresy. However, these processes are not well-documented in detail because they are difficult to observe and quantify. In the present study, the patterns of distribution of skin mites and phoretic lice on hippoboscid louse fly Pseudolynchia canariensis sampled from Columba livia were evaluated. The analyzed pigeons were juveniles and adults, with three distinct plumage colors: blue checker, spread, or wild type, and were caught over 24 months. A total of 1,381 hippoboscid flies were collected on 377 hosts. The plumage color did not influence the infestation patterns of louse flies on juvenile and adult pigeons, nor did it influence the infestation patterns of skin mites and phoretic lice on the hippoboscid flies. However, the environmental temperature was directly related to higher prevalence, mean infestation intensity, and phoretic species richness on P. canariensis during the hottest seasons. Furthermore, a higher abundance of phoretic mite eggs, including embryonated eggs, was observed in females of P. canariensis in all seasons.

Co-phylogeny of a hyper-symbiotic system: Endosymbiotic bacteria (Gammaproteobacteria), chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) and birds (Passeriformes)

Chewing lice are hosts to endosymbiotic bacteria as well as themselves being permanent parasites. This offers a unique opportunity to examine the cophylogenetic relationships between three ecologically interconnected organismal groups: birds, chewing lice, and bacteria. Here, we examine the cophylogenetic relationships between lice in the genus Guimaraesiella Eichler, 1949, their endosymbiotic Sodalis-allied bacteria, and a range of bird species from across South China. Both event and distance-based cophylogenetic analyses were explored to compare phylogenies of the three organismal groups. Pair-wise comparisons between lice-endosymbionts and bird-endosymbionts indicated that their evolutionary histories are not independent. However, comparisons between lice and birds, showed mixed results; the distance-based method of ParaFit indicated that their evolutionary histories are not independent, while the event-based method of Jane indicated that their phylogenies were no more congruent than expected by chance. Notably, louse host-switching does not seem to have affected bacterial strains, as conspecific lice sampled from distantly related hosts share bacteria belonging to the same clade.

Prevalence and diversity of parasitic bird lice (Insecta: Psocodea) in northeast Arkansas

Many groups of parasites lack basic information on biodiversity and host associations, which poses challenges for conservation and understanding the ecological relationships between hosts and their parasites. This gap in knowledge is particularly relevant for parasitic species with obscure lifestyles. Ectoparasitc bird lice (Insecta: Psocodea: Phthiraptera) are a group of parasites that has received a relatively substantial research focus, yet patterns of bird-louse relationships and louse diversity remain understudied in many geographic regions, including in parts of the southeastern United States. In this study, we assessed the diversity, prevalence, abundance, and intensity of lice from live and salvaged birds in northeastern Arkansas. We also focused on the frequency of co-occurrence of lice and symbiotic feather mites. Finally, we used nuclear and mitochondrial genes to assess the phylogenic relationships among the most common genera of lice in our sample. We found a total louse prevalence of 10.57% with the highest prevalence on the Passeriformes families Turdidae, Passerellidae, and Parulidae. We also found the louse genera Myrsidea and Brueelia to be the most prevalent and abundant in our sample. Additionally, we reported several novel associations among well-studied bird species. We also found that louse phylogenic patterns tend to reflect host taxonomy and/or ecology. Overall, our results provide important insight into the biodiversity, community structure, and host interactions of parasitic lice from North American birds.

Host body size, not host population size, predicts genome-wide effective population size of parasites

The effective population size (N_e) of an organism is expected to be generally proportional to the total number of individuals in a population. In parasites, we might expect the effective population size to be proportional to host population size and host body size, because both are expected to increase the number of parasite individuals. However, among other factors, parasite populations are sometimes so extremely subdivided that high levels of inbreeding may distort these predicted relationships. Here, we used whole-genome sequence data from dove parasites (71 feather louse species of the genus Columbicola) and phylogenetic comparative methods to study the relationship between parasite effective population size and host population size and body size. We found that parasite effective population size is largely explained by host body size but not host population size. These results suggest the potential local population size (infrapopulation or deme size) is more predictive of the long-term effective population size of parasites than is the total number of potential parasite infrapopulations (i.e., host individuals).

Chewing lice of passerine birds in reed beds in Slovakia, with a special focus on Panurus biarmicus

A total of 1185 passerine birds representing five species were examined for chewing lice in reed beds in southwestern Slovakia in spring (April) 2008, 2009 and 2016. Additional collecting focused only on chewing lice from Panurus biarmicus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Passeriformes: Panuridae) was carried out in spring (April), summer (July) and autumn (October) 2019. A total of 283 (24%) birds were parasitized by 10 species of chewing lice of four genera: Penenirmus, Menacanthus, Philopterus, and Brueelia. Most birds showed only very light (1-10 lice/host; 74%) to light infestations (11-20 lice/host; 16%). The authors found significantly higher prevalences and mean abundances of chewing lice on residents/short-distance migrants, that is, P. biarmicus, Acrocephalus melanopogon (Temminck, 1823) (Passeriformes: Acrocephalidae), than on long-distance migratory birds, that is, Acrocephalus scirpaceus (Hermann, 1804), Acrocephalus schoenobaenus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Passeriformes: Acrocephalidae), Locustella luscinioides (Savi, 1824) (Passeriformes: Locustellidae). No significant difference was found in the total mean intensity of chewing lice between these two groups of birds. Ischnoceran lice were more prevalent and abundant than amblyceran lice on residents and short-distance migrants, whereas the opposite was found on bird species that migrate long distances. A total of 146 (58%, n = 251) P. biarmicus were parasitized by 1490 chewing lice. Males of P. biarmicus showed higher prevalence and mean abundance than females with gradually descending values of prevalence, mean abundance and mean intensity from spring to autumn. The knowledge of the occurrence and population dynamics of lice on wild passerine birds can be useful in endangered species conservation programs and can also be applied to captive passerine birds, which may be analogous to resident birds in this sense.

THE CHEWING LICE OF BROWN BOOBY (SULA LEUCOGASTER) IN SOUTHEASTERN BRAZIL

The brown booby (Sula leucogaster Boddaert, 1783) has a wide geographic distribution, being found throughout the intertropical range except for the west coast of South America. Chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera and Ischnocera) are ectoparasites commonly found in association with a wide variety of bird species, and extensive infestations can lead to severe itching and irritation that causes skin lesions, damage to the plumage, and abandonment of nests. Sula leucogaster lice have an atypical distribution, not fully following the distribution of their host. In the years 2018 and 2019, 4 marine animal rehabilitation centers located in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, Brazil received live birds and carcasses of Sula leucogaster. The animals were deloused and lice of 2 different species were collected. Identification was performed by optical microscopy, and the species found were Eidmanniella albescens Piaget, 1880 and Pectinopygus garbeiPessoa and Guimarães, 1935. This is the first record of both species in Rio de Janeiro.

PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS OF GUIMARAESIELLA AND PRICEIELLA (PHTHIRAPTERA: ISCHNOCERA) FROM BABBLERS AND NON-BABBLERS (PASSERIFORMES)

Babblers (Passeriformes: Leiothrichidae, Pellorneidae, Timaliidae) are parasitized by more genera of lice of the Brueelia complex than any other group of songbirds. However, the relationships of these louse groups are poorly known. We here try to resolve the relationships between Guimaraesiella (Guimaraesiella), Guimaraesiella (Cicchinella), and their putative sister group Priceiella by using mitochondrial cytochrome c subunit 1 (COI), 12S, and 16S sequences. Our data indicate that G. (Cicchinella) forms a monophyletic group of lice from babblers, but the relationship between G. (Guimaraesiella), G. (Cicchinella), and Priceiella could not be resolved. Moreover, the position of the third lineage of babbler-specific lice, containing only the aberrant species Guimaraesiella montisodalis, is unresolved. Morphologically, this species is different from all other Guimaraesiella in several characters and may represent a distinct lineage. We present some data indicating that (1) the Nanling Mountain range may be a biogeographical barrier to chewing lice and (2) host participation in mixed-species feeding flocks may influence host associations in Brueelia-complex chewing lice.

NEW SPECIES AND NEW RECORDS OF PRICEIELLA (PHTHIRAPTERA: ISCHNOCERA: BRUEELIA-COMPLEX) FROM SOUTH CHINA

Seven new species of chewing lice in the genus PriceiellaGustafsson and Bush, 2017, are described and illustrated based on specimens collected in south China. They are Priceiella (Camurnirmus) tanydrepanus n. sp. from Garrulax castanotis castanotis (Ogilvie-Grant, 1899); Priceiella (Camurnirmus) nanlingensis n. sp. from Garrulax maesi maesi (Oustalet, 1890); Priceiella (Thescelovora) brutifrons n. sp. from Turdinus brevicaudatus stevensi (Kinnear, 1925); Priceiella (Thescelovora) chuae n. sp. from Pellorneum albiventre cinnamomeus (Rippon, 1900); Priceiella (Thescelovora) catanachei n. sp. from Stachyris strialata swinhoei Rothschild, 1903; Priceiella (Thescelovora) dehongensis n. sp. from Stachyris nigriceps yunnanensis La Touche, 1921; and Priceiella (Thescelovora) rotundiceps n. sp. from Pomatorhinus ruficollis styani Seebohm, 1884. Several of these new species constitute the second species of Priceiella known from the host, suggesting that local endemism may be high in this louse genus. We also provide new host records for Priceiella (Thescelovora) coleyaeGustafsson et al., 2018, and Priceiella (Thescelovora) austiniGustafsson et al., 2018, and correct the type host subspecies for the latter. Finally, we amend the subgenus descriptions of CamurnirmusGustafsson and Bush, 2017, and ThescelovoraGustafsson and Bush, 2017. As a result of these changes, Priceiella najeriGustafsson et al., 2018, is moved to subgenus Thescelovora. An updated checklist of the genus Priceiella is provided.

The interplay between host biogeography and phylogeny in structuring diversification of the feather louse genus Penenirmus

Parasite diversification is influenced by many of the same factors that affect speciation of free-living organisms, such as biogeographic barriers. However, the ecology and evolution of the host lineage also has a major impact on parasite speciation. Here we explore the interplay between biogeography and host-association on the pattern of diversification in a group of ectoparasitic lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Penenirmus) that feeds on the feathers of woodpeckers, barbets, and honeyguides (Piciformes) and some songbirds (Passeriformes). We use whole genome sequencing of 41 ingroup and 12 outgroup samples to develop a phylogenomic dataset of DNA sequences from a reference set of 2395 single copy ortholog genes, for a total of nearly four million aligned base positions. The phylogenetic trees resulting from both concatenated and gene-tree/species-tree coalescent analyses were nearly identical and highly supported. These trees recovered the genus Penenirmus as monophyletic and identified several major clades, which tended to be associated with one major host group. However, cophylogenetic analysis revealed that host-switching was a prominent process in the diversification of this group. This host-switching generally occurred within single major biogeographic regions. We did, however, find one case in which it appears that a rare dispersal event by a woodpecker lineage from North America to Africa allowed its associated louse to colonize a woodpecker in Africa, even though the woodpecker lineage from North America never became established there.

First Recorded Felicola (Suricatoecus) vulpis (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae) Infestation in a Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Turkey

Ectoparasite infestation was detected in a macroscopic examination of a red fox (Vulpes vulpes) that was brought dead to the Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Ondokuz Mayıs University Collected tick, lice and flea samples were preserved in 70% alcohol. It was determined in microscopic examination that tick samples were Haemaphysalis erinacei (Acari: Ixodidae), flea samples were Chaetopsylla globiceps (Siphonaptera; Vermipsyllidae) and chewing lice samples were Felicola (Suricatoecus) vulpis (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae). This study first reported the existence of Felicola (Suricatoecus) vulpis from foxes in Turkey.

PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTATIONS ON THE IN VITRO REARING OF HEMATOPHAGOUS PIGEON LOUSE HOHORSTIELLA LATA (AMBLYCERA: PHTHIRAPTERA: INSECTA)

Rearing hematophagous amblyceran lice in vitro is a challenging task. The hematophagous nature and active habits of amblycerans are distinct hurdles to in vitro rearing. The literature indicates only limited success in rearing the hematophagous amblyceran avian louse. Herein we report on the results of in vitro experimentation on an amblyceran pigeon louse, Hohorstiella lata. The incubation period of eggs was 5.47 ± 0.52 days. The durations of first, second, and third nymphal instars were 5.14 ± 0.55, 5.65 ± 0.83, and 6.35 ± 0.82 days, respectively. The average lifespan of adult females (7.45 ± 5.88 days) was higher than adult males (4.61 ± 3.57 days). Adult females laid a lifetime average of 3.73 eggs at a rate of 0.45 eggs/female/day under in vitro conditions (35 ± 1 C, 75-82% relative humidity, feather diet).

The reduced genome of a heritable symbiont from an ectoparasitic feather feeding louse

Background

Feather feeding lice are abundant and diverse ectoparasites that complete their entire life cycle on an avian host. The principal or sole source of nutrition for these lice is feathers. Feathers appear to lack four amino acids that the lice would require to complete development and reproduce. Several insect groups have acquired heritable and intracellular bacteria that can synthesize metabolites absent in an insect’s diet, allowing insects to feed exclusively on nutrient-poor resources. Multiple species of feather feeding lice have been shown to harbor heritable and intracellular bacteria. We expected that these bacteria augment the louse’s diet with amino acids and facilitated the evolution of these diverse and specialized parasites. Heritable symbionts of insects often have small genomes that contain a minimal set of genes needed to maintain essential cell functions and synthesize metabolites absent in the host insect’s diet. Therefore, we expected the genome of a bacterial endosymbiont in feather lice would be small, but encode pathways for biosynthesis of amino acids.

Results

We sequenced the genome of a bacterial symbiont from a feather feeding louse (Columbicola wolffhuegeli) that parasitizes the Pied Imperial Pigeon (Ducula bicolor) and used its genome to predict metabolism of amino acids based on the presence or absence of genes. We found that this bacterial symbiont has a small genome, similar to the genomes of heritable symbionts described in other insect groups. However, we failed to identify many of the genes that we expected would support metabolism of amino acids in the symbiont genome. We also evaluated other gene pathways and features of the highly reduced genome of this symbiotic bacterium.

Conclusions

Based on the data collected in this study, it does not appear that this bacterial symbiont can synthesize amino acids needed to complement the diet of a feather feeding louse. Our results raise additional questions about the biology of feather chewing lice and the roles of symbiotic bacteria in evolution of diverse avian parasites.

Two New Species of Sucking Lice (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Hoplopleuridae) from Chestnut Mice, Pseudomys gracilicaudatus and Pseudomys nanus (Rodentia: Muridae), in Australia

We describe two new species of sucking lice in the genus Hoplopleura Enderlein, 1904 (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Hoplopleuridae) from Australia: Hoplopleura gracilicaudatusa n. sp. from the eastern chestnut mouse Pseudomys gracilicaudatus (Gould) (Rodentia: Muridae), and Hoplopleura nanusa n. sp. from the western chestnut mouse Pseudomys nanus (Gould) (Rodentia: Muridae). Pseudomys Gray is the most speciose genus of rodents endemic to Australia with 24 species; however, only two Pseudomys species have been reported previously to be hosts of sucking lice. The description of the new species in the present study doubles the number of sucking louse species known to parasitize Pseudomys mice and increases the total number of sucking louse species known from endemic Australian rodents from 21 to 23. Pseudomys gracilicaudatus and P. nanus are closely related murines that diverged ~1 MYA with distinct and widely separated extant geographic distributions. The two new Hoplopleura species described in the present study share some morphological characters and likely co-evolved and co-speciated with their chestnut mouse hosts.

Prevalence and distribution of lice on sheep and cattle farms in Great Britain

Lice are common production-limiting ectoparasites affecting livestock. Up-to-date data on their prevalence and spatial distribution on farms in Great Britain is important given that prevalence is believed to be increasing as a result of insecticide resistance. Here the prevalence of farms reporting lice, and factors associated with louse presence, were assessed using a retrospective questionnaire. For sheep and cattle farms, 16.1 % and 15.8 % reported lice on their livestock, respectively. Beef farms were more likely to report lice than dairy farms, with a prevalence of 18.0 % and 7.8 %, respectively. For sheep farms, prevalence was highest in Wales (27.7 %) and Scotland (22.4 %). For cattle farms, prevalence was highest in Scotland (27.6 %), Wales (18.5 %) and SW England (18.5 %). For sheep farms, statistical hotspot clusters were identified in Wales, NW England and SW Scotland, with prevalence in these areas ranging from 30.7 to 40.0%. For cattle farms clustering of cases was less evident. Multivariable analysis showed that significant factors associated with lice on sheep farms were larger flock sizes and geographic location (Scotland or Wales). For beef cattle farms, significant associated factors were larger herd sizes and upland grazing. More than 90 % of farms that reported lice, also reported treating for lice.

Molecular identification of Campanulotes bidentatus Scopoli, 1763 (Phthiraptera, Philopteridae) infecting the domestic pigeon Columba livia from Saudi Arabia

The taxonomy of the order Phthiraptera is unstable and still problematic to researchers. Most of the current taxon classifications are mainly based on morphological features. Campanulotes bidentatus belongs to the chewing lice of the Philopteridae family that mostly parasitic on birds. There is a lack of sequence data and phylogenetic analyses on the family Philopteridae. In the current study, C. bidentatus was collected from the domestic pigeon Columba livia and identified morphologically and molecularly based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene (COI). The infection rate of the Campanulotes genus was approximately 58.82% in this study. Phylogenetic analysis based on the mt COI gene was informative for members of Philopteridae and the group taxon genera formed distinct clades. Future studies were recommended using the 16s rRNA to enhance the tree topology and obtain clear differentiation between genera.

Menopon picicola: a new junior synonym of Menacanthus pici (Insecta: Phthiraptera: Menoponidae)

Packard (1873) described Menopon picicola as a new species, based on ten lice taken from two species of woodpeckers of the genus Picoides-P. arcticus (Swainson, 1832) and P. dorsalis Baird, 1858-collected in Wyoming, U.S.A. in August 1872. Considering that (1) Packard (1873) neither designated a holotype nor a single type host, (2) his type material is most likely lost, and (3) no additional lice from either of those two species of Picoides have been reported in the literature, the taxonomic status of Menopon picicola has not been confirmed.

Combining Nuclear and Mitochondrial Loci Provides Phylogenetic Information in the Philopterus Complex of Lice (Psocodea: Ischnocera: Philopteridae)

The Philopterus Complex includes several lineages of lice that occur on birds. The complex includes the genera Philopterus (Nitzsch, 1818; Psocodea: Philopteridae), Philopteroides (Mey, 2004; Psocodea: Philopteridae), and many other lineages that have sometimes been regarded as separate genera. Only a few studies have investigated the phylogeny of this complex, all of which are based on morphological data. Here we evaluate the utility of nuclear and mitochondrial loci for recovering the phylogeny within this group. We obtained phylogenetic trees from 39 samples of the Philopterus Complex (Psocodea: Philopteridae), using sequences of two nuclear (hyp and TMEDE6) and one mitochondrial (COI) marker. We evaluated trees derived from these genes individually as well as from concatenated sequences. All trees show 20 clearly demarcated taxa (i.e., putative species) divided into five well-supported clades. Percent sequence divergence between putative species (~5-30%) for the COI gene tended to be much higher than those for the nuclear genes (~1-15%), as expected. In cases where species are described, the lineages identified based on molecular divergence correspond to morphologically defined species. In some cases, species that are host generalists exhibit additional underlying genetic variation and such cases need to be explored by further future taxonomic revisions of the Philopterus Complex.

Eight New Species of Sucking Lice (Psocodea: Phthiraptera) From Endemic Murine Rodents in Australia and an Updated Identification Key

Based on a comprehensive study of museum specimens, eight new species of sucking lice of the genus Hoplopleura Enderlein, 1904 (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Hoplopleuridae), are described from six genera of Australian Old Endemic rodents: Conilurus Ogilby, 1838 (Rodentia: Muridae), Leggadina Thomas, 1910 (Rodentia: Muridae), Leporillus Thomas, 1906 (Rodentia: Muridae), Mesembriomys Palmer, 1906 (Rodentia: Muridae), Pogonomys Milne-Edwards, 1877 (Rodentia: Muridae), and Xeromys Thomas, 1889 (Rodentia: Muridae). The description of these new species increases the number of sucking louse species from endemic Australian rodents from 13 to 21 and extends the records of sucking lice to all of the 14 genera of endemic rodents in Australia. Our results show that sucking lice are much more diverse among rodents in Australia than previously known. Furthermore, the Australian Hoplopleura species are host specific-each Hoplopleura species, including the eight new species described in the present study, parasitizes only a single host species, except Hoplopleura irritans Kuhn and Ludwig, 1967 (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Hoplopleuridae) and Hoplopleura melomydis Weaver, 2017 (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Hoplopleuridae), each of which is found on two host species. An updated dichotomous key for identifying Australian Hoplopleura species is included.

Two New Species of Sucking Lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura: Hoplopleuridae and Polyplacidae) from Grant's Rock Mouse, Micaelamys granti, in South Africa

Two new species of sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura), Hoplopleura granti n. sp. (Hoplopleuridae) and Polyplax megacephalus n. sp. (Polyplacidae), are described from Grant's rock mouse, Micaelamys granti (Wroughton), from Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Adults of both sexes are illustrated via line drawings and differential interference contrast microscopy images, and are compared with previously described related species that parasitize related hosts: Hoplopleura patersoni Johnson from Aethomys chrysophilus (de Winton) (red veld rat), Aethomys kaiseri (Noack) (Kaiser's aethomys), and Micaelamys namaquensis (A. Smith) (Namaqua rock mouse); Hoplopleura aethomydis Kleynhans from M. namaquensis; Polyplax praomydis Bedford from A. chrysophilus and M. namaquensis; and Polyplax solivaga Johnson from A. chrysophilus. It is not known if these new species of lice are vectors of any pathogens.

Insect ectoparasites from wild passerine birds in the Azores Islands

A total of 266 wild passerine birds (Passeriformes) representing eight species and nine subspecies from three islands of the Archipelago of the Azores were examined for ectoparasites. Two species of louse-flies Ornithomya avicularia and Ornithoica turdi (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), three species of fleas Ceratophyllus gallinae, Ceratophyllus sp. and Dasypsyllus gallinulae (Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllidae), and 11 species of chewing lice belonging to the genera Menacanthus, Myrsidea (Phthiraptera: Menoponidae), Ricinus (Phthiraptera: Ricinidae), Brueelia, Guimaraesiella, Philopterus, Sturnidoecus and Turdinirmus (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) were recorded. At least one species of ectoparasite was found on 114 birds of six species. Guimaraesiella tovornikae and Myrsidea sylviae from Sylvia atricapilla are redescribed. Records of Ceratophyllus sp. and Sturnidoecus sp. from Turdus merula represent new parasite-host associations. Phoresy of Guimaraesiella amsel on Ornithoica turdi was also found. Parasitological parameters such as prevalence, intensity and abundance and geographic distribution of recorded ectoparasites are provided.

A New Species of Sucking Louse from the Mandrill from Gabon with a Review of Host Associations and Geographical Distributions, and Identification Keys to Members of the Genus pedicinus (Phthiraptera: Anoplura: Pedicinidae)

Members of the sucking louse genus Pedicinus are ectoparasites of cercopithecid primates in Africa, Asia, and Gibraltar. Pedicinus gabonensis n. sp. is described on the basis of adult male and female specimens collected from the mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) in Gabon. The new species is compared morphologically with other members of the genus Pedicinus, and a nuclear elongation factor 1 alpha gene sequence is provided. Host associations and geographical distributions of the 18 previously recognized species of the genus and of P. gabonensis n. sp. are reviewed. Updated identification keys are provided for males and females of all known valid species of Pedicinus.

Sex interacts with age-dependent change in the abundance of lice-infesting Amur Falcons (Falco amurensis)

Sex-biassed and age-biassed parasite infections are common in nature, including ectoparasites-vertebrate host systems. We investigated the effect of Amur Falcons’ sex, age and body size on the abundance of their lice at a migratory stopover site, where the falcons’ habitat use and behaviour are more homogeneous across sex and age categories than during the breeding season. We sampled Amur Falcons in Nagaland, India at major roosting sites in 2016. We applied generalized linear models (with negative binomial distribution and log-link) to model the abundance of their two most numerous lice (Colpocephalum subzerafae and Degeeriella rufa) using the host age category (juvenile or adult) and wing length, both in interaction with sex, as explanatory variables. The abundance of C. subzerafae was only affected by host age, being nearly four times higher on juveniles than on adults. Juveniles were also more infested with D. rufa than the adults. Additionally, the abundance of the latter species was lower on adult male Falcons as compared to adult females. A juvenile bias in ectoparasite infestations is common in nature, probably due to juveniles being immunologically naïve, more resource-limited and may be inexperienced in body maintenance behaviours like preening and grooming. On the other hand, female-biassed infestations are much rarer than male-biassed infestations. We briefly discuss the possible causes of female-biassed infestations on Amur Falcons reported here, and in the closely related Red-footed Falcon and Lesser Kestrel as reported in the literature.

Development of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry for the identification of lice isolated from farm animals

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is now routinely used for the rapid identification of microorganisms isolated from clinical samples and has been recently successfully applied to the identification of arthropods. In the present study, this proteomics tool was used to identify lice collected from livestock and poultry in Algeria. The MALDI-TOF MS spectra of 408 adult specimens were measured for 14 species, including Bovicola bovis, B. ovis, B. caprae, Haematopinus eurysternus, Linognathus africanus, L. vituli, Solenopotes capillatus, Menacanthus stramineus, Menopon gallinae, Chelopistes meleagridis, Goniocotes gallinae, Goniodes gigas, Lipeurus caponis and laboratory reared Pediculus humanus corporis. Good quality spectra were obtained for 305 samples. Spectral analysis revealed intra-species reproducibility and inter-species specificity that were consistent with the morphological classification. A blind test of 248 specimens was performed against the in-lab database upgraded with new spectra and validated using molecular tools. With identification percentages ranging from 76% to 100% alongside high identification scores (mean = 2.115), this study proposes MALDI-TOF MS as an effective tool for discriminating lice species.

Lice infestation and diversity in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the Special Region of Yogyakarta and Central Java, Indonesia

Background and Aim:

Biting lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera and Ischnocera) are ectoparasites that play important roles in the transmission of disease agents that infect turkeys and impact turkey productivity. This study aimed to determine the diversity of lice that infest turkeys in the Central Java Province and the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

Materials and Methods:

Lice sampling was conducted at 16 different locations from April 2019 to June 2019 in turkeys aged 4 months to 2 years. The samples were stored in 70% alcohol and were identified using avian louse keys. The morphology of the specimens was macroscopically and microscopically evaluated, and the resulting data were descriptively and qualitatively analyzed.

Results:

A total of 2505 lice were collected, and two families and five genera of lice were identified. Three lice genus members of the Philopteridae family (Lipeurus, Oxylipeurus, and Chelopistes) and two genera of the Menoponidae family (Colpocephalum and Menacanthus) were identified. Lipeurus was the most frequently identified genera in turkeys, whereas Menacanthus was the most rarely identified one. The White Holland breed had the highest number of lice infestations, whereas the Jersey Buff breed exhibited the highest diversity of lice genera. The average number of lice infestations was higher in male turkeys than in female turkeys.

Conclusion:

The occurrence of ectoparasites in domestic turkeys indicates that the existence and diversity of lice genera in the study location can be influenced by turkey type, turkey maintenance system, enclosure sanitation measures, lack of strategic ectoparasite control, and environmental factors.

Sex-dependent changes in the louse abundance of red-footed falcons (Falco vespertinus)

Permanent ectoparasites live in stable environments; thus, their population dynamics are mostly adapted to changes in the host life cycle. We aimed to investigate how static and dynamic traits of red-footed falcons interplay with the dynamics of their louse subpopulations during breeding and how they affect the colonisation of new hosts by lice. We sampled red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus) nestlings (two breeding seasons) and adults (one breeding season) in southern Hungary. The mean abundance of Colpocephalum subzerafae and Degeeriella rufa lice on the nestlings was modelled with generalized linear mixed models using clutch size and host sex in interaction with wing length. For adults, we used wing length and the number of days after laying the first egg, both in interaction with sex. D. rufa abundances increased with the nestlings' wing length. In one year, this trend was steeper on females. In adult birds, both louse species exhibited higher abundances on females at the beginning, but it decreased subsequently through the breeding season. Contrarily, abundances were constantly low on adult males. Apparently, D. rufa postpones transmission until nestlings develop juvenile plumage and choose the more feathered individual among siblings. The sexual difference in the observed abundance could either be caused by the different plumage, or by the females' preference for less parasitized males. Moreover, females likely have more time to preen during the incubation period, lowering their louse burdens. Thus, sex-biased infestation levels likely arise due to parasite preferences in the nestlings and host behavioural processes in the adult falcons.

Mitochondrial genomes of Columbicola feather lice are highly fragmented, indicating repeated evolution of minicircle-type genomes in parasitic lice

Most animals have a conserved mitochondrial genome structure composed of a single chromosome. However, some organisms have their mitochondrial genes separated on several smaller circular or linear chromosomes. Highly fragmented circular chromosomes (“minicircles”) are especially prevalent in parasitic lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera), with 16 species known to have between nine and 20 mitochondrial minicircles per genome. All of these species belong to the same clade (mammalian lice), suggesting a single origin of drastic fragmentation. Nevertheless, other work indicates a lesser degree of fragmentation (2–3 chromosomes/genome) is present in some avian feather lice (Ischnocera: Philopteridae). In this study, we tested for minicircles in four species of the feather louse genus Columbicola (Philopteridae). Using whole genome shotgun sequence data, we applied three different bioinformatic approaches for assembling the Columbicola mitochondrial genome. We further confirmed these approaches by assembling the mitochondrial genome of Pediculus humanus from shotgun sequencing reads, a species known to have minicircles. Columbicola spp. genomes are highly fragmented into 15–17 minicircles between ∼1,100 and ∼3,100 bp in length, with 1–4 genes per minicircle. Subsequent annotation of the minicircles indicated that tRNA arrangements of minicircles varied substantially between species. These mitochondrial minicircles for species of Columbicola represent the first feather lice (Philopteridae) for which minicircles have been found in a full mitochondrial genome assembly. Combined with recent phylogenetic studies of parasitic lice, our results provide strong evidence that highly fragmented mitochondrial genomes, which are otherwise rare across the Tree of Life, evolved multiple times within parasitic lice.

Rapid host expansion of an introduced parasite, the spiny rat louse Polyplax spinulosa (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Polyplacidae), among endemic rodents in Australia

BACKGROUND

Historical European exploration and colonization resulted in the introduction of four species of rodents to the Australian continent from Eurasia: the brown rat, Rattus norvegicus, the black rat, R. rattus, the Pacific rat, R. exulans, and the house mouse, Mus musculus. The spread of these rodents created opportunities for their co-introduced sucking lice to parasitize and adapt to endemic rodents in Australia.

METHODS

We collected sucking lice from rodent specimens in seven museums across Australia. We identified the spiny rat louse, Polyplax spinulosa, based on morphology. We sequenced the mitochondrial cox1 and rrnL genes of P. spinulosa specimens and constructed a phylogenetic tree with rrnL sequences.

RESULTS

We examined 989 rodent specimens of 54 species and collected 2111 adult sucking lice and 1064 nymphal sucking lice. We found that P. spinulosa had nearly doubled its host range by parasitizing at least six endemic rodent species in Australia. The other two introduced lice, P. serrata and Hoplopleura pacifica, however, have apparently failed to expand to any endemic rodents in Australia. Our analysis of mitochondrial rrnL gene sequences divided P. spinulosa into two genotypes (European vs Southeast Asian), which differ by 7.5%; both genotypes were introduced into Australia and then expanded their host ranges to include endemic rodents.

CONCLUSIONS

The earliest record of a European ship landing in Australia was in 1606, followed by British settlement in 1788. The expansion of P. spinulosa to at least six endemic rodent species in Australia has therefore occurred in the time frame of 200 to 400 years, which is extremely rapid relative to its host expansion to eight native rat species in Eurasia in ~ 16 million years since it diverged from P. serrata. The host expansion of P. spinulosa is remarkable for a blood-sucking louse and is in stark contrast to the absence of host expansion by P. serrata and H. pacifica. Comparison among these three introduced sucking lice indicated that both louse-specific factors and host-specific factors can contribute to the success or failure of host expansion.

Evidence for idiothetic and allothetic control of thermo-orientation in feather-feeding lice

Thermal cues are widely used by ectoparasites to find and exploit hosts. Recently, the wing louse Columbicola columbae (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) was shown to use thermo-orientation when migrating between host microhabitats. Here, we study the control systems governing thermo-orientation by motion tracking wing lice on spatial and temporal heat gradients. As previously demonstrated, lice placed on spatial heat gradients successfully located nearby heat targets. Unilateral antennectomies were then used to remove spatial aspects of the thermal cue. These lice were still capable of locating heat targets, suggesting their response relied on tracking changes in the cue over time (idiothetic control). Course control was accomplished via angular corrections after louse body-angles deviated from the heat target. Louse behavior on temporal heat gradients provided additional evidence for idiothetic control- lice altered turn size and velocity after temperatures uniformly shifted without any spatial reference. We also show that lice are likely capable of responding to spatial aspects of the cue, consistent with allothetic control. On the spatial heat gradient, lice with two antennae were more efficient at locating heat targets as compared to those with unilateral antennectomies. Additionally, when traveling along temperature isoclines (where lice can detect spatial but not temporal aspects of the cue), lice with two antennae consistently turned towards the heat target, while those with unilateral antennectomies showed no preference. In all, we find evidence that lice can use both idiothetic and allothetic control during thermo-orientation, and likely integrate information from these two systems to guide movements on hosts.

Chewing lice from high-altitude and migrating birds in Yunnan, China, with descriptions of two new species of Guimaraesiella

In total, 366 birds representing 55 species in 24 families and eight orders, were examined for chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera, Ischnocera) in two high-altitude localities in Yunnan Province, China. In Ailaoshan, almost all of the birds examined were resident passeriforms, of which 36% were parasitized by chewing lice. In Jinshanyakou, most birds were on migration, and included both passerine and non-passerine birds. Of the passerine birds caught in Jinshanyakou, only one bird (0.7%) was parasitized by chewing lice. The prevalence of Myrsidea and Brueelia-complex lice on birds caught in Ailaoshan was higher than in previous reports. Of the chewing lice identifiable to species level, three represent new records for China: Actornithophilus hoplopteri (Mjöberg, 1910), Maculinirmus ljosalfar Gustafsson & Bush, 2017 and Quadraceps sinensis Timmermann, 1954. In total, 17 new host records are included, of which we describe two as new species in the Brueelia-complex: Guimaraesiella (Cicchinella) ailaoshanensis sp. nov. ex Schoeniparus dubius dubius (Hume, 1874) and G. (C.) montisodalis sp. nov. ex Fulvetta manipurensis tonkinensis Delacour & Jabouille, 1930. This published work has been registered in ZooBank, http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:9FC3D8EE-2CED-4DBE-A1DB-471B71260D27.

Simultaneous radiation of bird and mammal lice following the K-Pg boundary

The diversification of parasite groups often occurs at the same time as the diversification of their hosts. However, most studies demonstrating this concordance only examine single host-parasite groups. Multiple diverse lineages of ectoparasitic lice occur across both birds and mammals. Here, we describe the evolutionary history of lice based on analyses of 1107 single-copy orthologous genes from sequenced genomes of 46 species of lice. We identify three major diverse groups of lice: one exclusively on mammals, one almost exclusively on birds and one on both birds and mammals. Each of these groups radiated just after the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary, the time of the mass extinction event of the dinosaurs and rapid diversification of most of the modern lineages of birds and mammals.

Two lineages of kingfisher feather lice exhibit differing degrees of cospeciation with their hosts

Unlike most bird species, individual kingfisher species (Aves: Alcedinidae) are typically parasitized by only a single genus of louse (Alcedoffula, Alcedoecus, or Emersoniella). These louse genera are typically specific to a particular kingfisher subfamily. Specifically, Alcedoecus and Emersoniella parasitize Halcyoninae, whereas Alcedoffula parasitizes Alcedininae and Cerylinae. Although Emersoniella is geographically restricted to the Indo-Pacific region, Alcedoecus and Alcedoffula are geographically widespread. We used DNA sequences from two genes, the mitochondrial COI and nuclear EF-1α genes, to infer phylogenies for the two geographically widespread genera of kingfisher lice, Alcedoffula and Alcedoecus. These phylogenies included 47 kingfisher lice sampled from 11 of the 19 currently recognized genera of kingfishers. We compared louse phylogenies to host phylogenies to reconstruct their cophylogenetic history. Two distinct clades occur within Alcedoffula, one that infests Alcedininae and a second that infests Cerylinae. All species of Alcedoecus were found only on host species of the subfamily Halcyoninae. Cophylogenetic analysis indicated that Alcedoecus, as well as the clade of Alcedoffula occurring on Alcedininae, do not show evidence of cospeciation. In contrast, the clade of Alcedoffula occurring on Cerylinae showed strong evidence of cospeciation.

Host defense triggers rapid adaptive radiation in experimentally evolving parasites

Adaptive radiation occurs when the members of a single lineage evolve different adaptive forms in response to selection imposed by competitors or predators. Iconic examples include Darwin's finches, Caribbean anoles, and Hawaiian silverswords, all of which live on islands. Although adaptive radiation is thought to be an important generator of biodiversity, most studies concern groups that have already diversified. Here, we take the opposite approach. We experimentally triggered diversification in the descendants of a single population of host-specific parasites confined to different host "islands." We show rapid adaptive divergence of experimentally evolving feather lice in response to preening, which is a bird's main defense against ectoparasites. We demonstrate that host defense exerts strong phenotypic selection for crypsis in lice transferred to different colored rock pigeons (Columba livia). During four years of experimental evolution (∼60 generations), the lice evolved heritable differences in color. Strikingly, the observed color differences spanned the range of phenotypes found among congeneric lice adapted to other species of birds. To our knowledge, this is the first real-time demonstration that microevolution is fast enough to simulate millions of years of macroevolutionary change. Our results further indicate that host-mediated selection triggers rapid divergence in the adaptive radiation of parasites, which are among the most diverse organisms on Earth.

New Genus and Two New Species of Chewing Lice from Southeast Asian Trogons (Aves: Trogoniformes), with a Revised Key to the Philopterus-complex

PURPOSE

To describe a new genus and two new species of chewing lice from Southeast Asian trogons (Trogoniformes). These lice belong in the Philopterus-complex.

METHODS

Slide-mounted lice were examined in a light microscope, illustrated by means of a drawing tube, and described using standard procedures.

RESULTS

The new genus and species were successfully described.

CONCLUSIONS

The genus Vinceopterus n. gen. is described from two species of Southeast Asian trogons (Trogoniformes: Harpactes). It presently comprises two species: Vinceopterus erythrocephali n. sp. from three subspecies of the Red-headed Trogon Harpactes erythrocephalus (Gould, 1834), and Vinceopterus mindanensis n. sp. from two subspecies of the Philippine Trogon Harpactes ardens (Temminck, 1826). Vinceopterus belongs to the Philopterus-complex, and thus likely constitutes a genus of head lice. Vinceopterus is the second new genus of chewing lice discovered on Southeast Asian trogons in recent years, the first genus of presumed head lice on trogons worldwide, and the fifth genus of chewing lice known from trogons globally. A translated and revised key to the Philopterus-complex is provided, as well as notes on the various chewing lice genera known from trogons.

Using human head lice to unravel neglect and cause of death

Despite the common association of human lice with abandoned or neglected people, no procedure to assess pediculosis, aimed to detect signs of neglect, exists. Investigating the two most common forms of head louse infestation, regular and severe, we define lice-markers of neglect and develop a protocol and survey form to record and assess pediculosis. The study of head lice from a deceased victim of neglect helped unravel time-length since death, frequency of exposure to neglect and the cause and circumstances related to the death. Nit-clusters are markers of neglect, indicating length and frequency of neglect episodes. In the case study used here that culminated in the death of the victim, sustained abandonment started circa 2 years before discovery. The lice suggested that death was caused by overconsumption of a powerful calcium channel blocker, an antihypertensive, an excess of which in lice food supply (blood) stops oogenesis. Despite hosting thousands of adult females on the hair, lice reproduction stopped and nits were no longer developed or deposited on the hairs at the root end. This short distance of the shaft with no nits provided a time estimation of overdosing of almost 2 months before death.

Ten new species of Brueelia Kéler, 1936 (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Philopteridae) from nuthatches (Aves: Passeriformes: Sittidae), tits and chickadees (Paridae), and goldcrests (Regulidae)

Ten new species of chewing lice in the genus Brueelia Kéler, 1936, are described from hosts in the families Paridae, Regulidae, and Sittidae. They are: Brueelia johnsoni n. sp. from Poecile sclateri eidos (Peters, 1927); Brueelia juniperi n. sp. from Baeolophus ridgwayi ridgwayi (Richmond, 1902); Brueelia kabulica n. sp. from Sitta tephronota tephronota Sharpe, 1872; Brueelia mpumalangensis n. sp. from Melaniparus niger niger (Vieillot, 1818); Brueelia nazae n. sp. from Parus cinereus caschmirensis Hartert, 1905; Brueelia oxyrhyncha n. sp. from Sitta nagaensis nagaensis Godwin-Austen, 1874; Brueelia picea. sp. from Parus major excelsus Buvry, 1857; Brueelia ragusica n. sp. from Sitta neumayer neumayer Michahelles, 1830; Brueelia regulicida n. sp. from Regulus calendula grinnelli Palmer, 1897; Brueelia sittacola n. sp. from Sitta carolinensis carolinensis Latham, 1790. Brueelia regulicida is the first Brueelia-complex louse to be described from the host family Regulidae. Collectively, the Brueelia of parid, regulid, and sittid hosts show two peculiar patterns. Firstly, lice on closely related hosts appear to be distantly related. Secondly, lice on most hosts in these families appear to be more closely related to lice on other host families than to each other. This contradicts the traditional view that Brueelia-complex lice on closely related hosts are themselves closely related. Potentially, the tendency of the hosts to participate in mixed-species feeding flocks may explain some of these patterns.

(Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Hoplopleuridae) and a new host record of the spiny rat louse Polyplax spinulosa Burmeister, 1839 (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Polyplacidae) from the long-haired rat Rattus villosissimus Waite (Rodentia: Muridae) in Australia

BACKGROUND

The sucking louse fauna of endemic Australian rodents has been under-studied for decades. Sixty-five species of native rodents have been recorded in Australia. However, only 11 species of lice have been reported from 11 species of endemic Australian rodents.

RESULTS

We describe a new species of sucking louse, Hoplopleura villosissima Wang (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Hoplopleuridae), and report a new host record of the spiny rat louse, Polyplax spinulosa Burmeister, 1839 (Psocodea: Phthiraptera: Polyplacidae), from the long-haired rat, Rattus villosissimus Waite (Rodentia: Muridae), which is endemic to Australia.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first record of sucking louse from R. villosissimus and the first record of a species of Polyplax Enderlein, 1904 from an endemic Australian rodent. This study brings the total number of sucking louse species in endemic Australian rodents from 11 to 13. Previously, only the introduced brown rat, Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout and the black rat, Rattus rattus Linnaeus were recorded as the hosts of P. spinulosa in Australia. Because R. villosissimus overlaps with R. rattus in distribution but not with R. norvegicus, we propose that P. spinulosa transferred to R. villosissimus from R. rattus.

Control of biting lice, Mallophaga - a review

The chewing lice (Mallophaga) are common parasites of different animals. Most of them infest terrestrial and marine birds, including pigeons, doves, swans, cormorants and penguins. Mallophaga have not been found on marine mammals but only on terrestrial ones, including livestock and pets. Their bites damage cattle, sheep, goats, horses and poultry, causing itch and scratch and arousing phthiriasis and dermatitis. Notably, Mallophaga can vector important parasites, such as the filarial heartworm Sarconema eurycerca. Livestock losses due to chewing lice are often underestimated, maybe because farmers notice the presence of the biting lice only when the infestation is too high. In this review, we examined current knowledge on the various strategies available for Mallophaga control. The effective management of their populations has been obtained through the employ of several synthetic insecticides. However, pesticide overuse led to serious concerns for human health and the environment. Natural enemies of Mallophaga are scarcely studied. Their biological control with predators and parasites has not been explored yet. However, the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae has been reported as effective in vitro and in vivo experiments against Damalinia bovis infestation on cattle. Furthermore, different Bacillus thuringiensis preparations have been tested against Mallophaga, the most effective were B. thuringiensis var. kurstaki, kenyae and morrisoni. Lastly, plant-borne insecticides have been evaluated against Mallophaga. Tested products mainly contained bioactive principles from two Meliaceae, Azadirachta indica, and Carapa guianensis. High efficacy of neem-borne preparations was reported, leading to the development of several products currently marketed. Overall, our review highlighted that our knowledge about Mallophaga vector activity and control is extremely patchy. Their control still relied on the employ of chemical pesticides widely used to fight other primary pests and vectors of livestock, such as ticks, while the development of eco-friendly control tool is scarce. Behavior-based control of Mallophaga, using pheromone-based lures or even the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) may also represent a potential route for their control, but our limited knowledge on their behavioral ecology and chemical communication strongly limit any possible approach.

Integrating phylogenomic and population genomic patterns in avian lice provides a more complete picture of parasite evolution

Parasite diversity accounts for most of the biodiversity on earth, and is shaped by many processes (e.g., cospeciation, host switching). To identify the effects of the processes that shape parasite diversity, it is ideal to incorporate both deep (phylogenetic) and shallow (population) perspectives. To this end, we developed a novel workflow to obtain phylogenetic and population genetic data from whole genome sequences of body lice parasitizing New World ground-doves. Phylogenies from these data showed consistent, highly resolved species-level relationships for the lice. By comparing the louse and ground-dove phylogenies, we found that over long-term evolutionary scales their phylogenies were largely congruent. Many louse lineages (both species and populations) also demonstrated high host-specificity, suggesting ground-dove divergence is a primary driver of their parasites' diversity. However, the few louse taxa that are generalists are structured according to biogeography at the population level. This suggests dispersal among sympatric hosts has some effect on body louse diversity, but over deeper time scales the parasites eventually sort according to host species. Overall, our results demonstrate that multiple factors explain the patterns of diversity in this group of parasites, and that the effects of these factors can vary over different evolutionary scales. The integrative approach we employed was crucial for uncovering these patterns, and should be broadly applicable to other studies.

Chewing lice from wild birds in northern Greece

Greece represents an important area for wild birds due to its geographical position and habitat diversity. Although the bird species in Greece are well recorded, the information about the chewing lice that infest them is practically non-existent. Thus, the aim of the present study was to record the species of lice infesting wild birds in northern Greece and furthermore, to associate the infestation prevalence with factors such as the age, sex, migration and social behaviour of the host as well as the time of the year. In total 729 birds, (belonging to 9 orders, 32 families and 68 species) were examined in 7 localities of northern Greece, during 9 ringing sessions from June 2013 until October 2015. Eighty (11%) of the birds were found to be infested with lice. In 31 different bird species, 560 specimens of lice, belonging to 33 species were recorded. Mixed infestations were recorded in 11 cases where birds were infested with 2-3 different lice species. Four new host-parasite associations were recorded i.e. Menacanthus curuccae from Acrocephalus melanopogon, Menacanthus agilis from Cettia cetti, Myrsidea sp. from Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, and Philopretus citrinellae from Spinus spinus. Moreover, Menacanthus sinuatus was detected on Poecile lugubris, rendering this report the first record of louse infestation in this bird species. The statistical analysis of the data collected showed no association between parasitological parameters (prevalence, mean and median intensity and mean abundance) in two different periods of the year (breeding vs post-breeding season). However, there was a statistically significant difference in the prevalence of infestation between a) migrating and sedentary passerine birds (7.4% vs 13.2%), b) colonial and territorial birds (54.5% vs 9.6%), and c) female and male birds in breeding period (2.6% vs 15.6%).

Two New Species of Sucking Lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura: Polyplacidae) From Endangered, Hibernating Lemurs (Primates: Cheirogaleidae)

Lemurpediculus robbinsi sp. nov. is described from Crossley's dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus crossleyi A. Grandidier, and Lemurpediculus claytoni sp. nov. is described from Sibree's dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus sibreei Forsyth Major, from Madagascar. Both sexes of each new louse species are illustrated and distinguished from the two previously known species of Lemurpediculus: L. verruculosus (Ward) and L. petterorum Paulian. With the addition of two new species to the genus, an amended description of Lemurpediculus is provided. The two hosts of the new louse species are morphologically similar, endangered, obligately hibernating lemurs. These two species of lemurs are sometimes sympatric in rainforests in eastern Madagascar. Despite the morphological similarity of the two host species, their lice are morphologically distinct and are easiest to identify based on the shape of the subgenital plate of the female and the shape of the genitalia in the male. Both new species of lice should be considered to be endangered because their hosts are endangered. It is not known if either of the new species of lice are vectors of pathogens or parasites to their hosts.

Population levels of phthirapteran ectoparasites on the goats in Rampur (U.P.)

Out of the four phthirapteran species known to occur, only two were recovered from the goats in district Rampur (ischnoceran louse, Bovicola caprae and the anopluran, Linognathus africanus). As many as, 26.5% (n = 250) of the goats examined were found infested with Phthiraptera. The prevalence on two sexes of goats remained similar (X² = 0.013, P < 0.05). However, lice were more prevalent on younger goats than adults and older ones (X² = 9.78, P < 0.05). The correlation between the prevalence and mean monthly temperature of Phthiraptera was found significant. On the other hand correlation between prevalence and humidity was found insignificant. As many as, 74.5% of the infested goats carried both the species while 25.4% exhibited single species infestation. The ischnoceran louse, B. caprae was comparatively more prevalent (18.4%) than the anopluran L. africanus (11.2%). The mean intensity (mean number of lice counted per square inch, at 20 anatomical sites) of B. caprae was comparatively higher than that of L. africanus. As far as, the population composition is concerned the females outnumbered the males in natural population. On the other hands, nymphs dominated over adults in natural population.

Size matters for lice on birds: Coevolutionary allometry of host and parasite body size

Body size is one of the most fundamental characteristics of all organisms. It influences physiology, morphology, behavior, and even interspecific interactions such as those between parasites and their hosts. Host body size influences the magnitude and variability of parasite size according to Harrison's rule (HR: positive relationship between host and parasite body sizes) and Poulin's Increasing Variance Hypothesis (PIVH: positive relationship between host body size and the variability of parasite body size). We analyzed parasite-host body size allometry for 581 species of avian lice (∼15% of known diversity) and their hosts. We applied phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) methods to account for phylogenetic nonindependence controlling for host and parasite phylogenies separately and variance heterogeneity. We tested HR and PIVH for the major families of avian lice (Ricinidae, Menoponidae, Philopteridae), and for distinct ecological guilds within Philopteridae. Our data indicate that most families and guilds of avian lice follow both HR and PIVH; however, ricinids did not follow PIVH and the "body lice" guild of philopterid lice did not follow HR or PIVH. We discuss mathematical and ecological factors that may be responsible for these patterns, and we discuss the potential pervasiveness of these relationships among all parasites on Earth.

Population characteristics of black kite lice

A look on literature revealed that the population characteristics of Phthiraptera infesting Black Kite, Milvus migrans Boddaert deserved investigation. Thirty-two kites were sampled in district Rampur (U.P.) India during January 2011-December 2012, for the presence of phthirapteran ectoparasites. Two amblyceran species, Laemobothrion maximum Scopoli and Colpocephalum turbinatum Denny and one ischnoceran louse, Degeeriella regalis Giebel were recovered. The prevalence, intensity of infestation, sample mean abundance, range of infestation, sex ratios, and adult nymph ratios of three lice were recorded. C. turbinatum ranked first in the order of prevalence and intensity of infestation, followed by D. regalis. The prevalence and intensity of L. maximum was quite low.

A note on the haematophagous nature of poultry shaft louse, Menopon gallinae (Amblycera: Phthiraptera)

An analysis of the crop contents of the poultry shaft louse, Menopon gallina indicates that 67 % of adult males and 72 % of the adult females examined carried red content compatible to host blood, along with feather barbules. The percentage of nymphal instars carrying red content in the crop was quite low. On the basis of crop contents the louse does not seem to harbor any triturating agent and is also not involved in cannibalism or predation. SEM studies on the ventral side of head do not indicate the presence of any pointed structure which can be used to pierce the skin.

Chewing lice (Phthiraptera) from wild birds in southern Portugal

This study was carried out to determine chewing louse species of wild birds in the Ria Formosa Natural Park, located in southern Portugal. In addition, the hypothesis that bird age, avian migration and social behaviour have an impact on the louse prevalence was tested. Between September and December of 2013, 122 birds (belonging to 10 orders, 19 families, 31 genera and 35 species) captured in scientific ringing sessions and admitted to the Wildlife Rehabilitation and Investigation Centre of Ria Formosa were examined for lice. Twenty-six (21.3%) birds were found to be infested with at least one chewing louse species. The chewing lice identified include 18 species. Colonial birds (34.9%) and migratory birds (29.5%) had statistically significant higher prevalence than territorial birds (6.8%) and resident birds (13.1%), respectively. This paper records 17 louse species for the first time in southern Portugal: Laemobothrion maximum, Laemobothrion vulturis, Actornithophilus piceus lari, Actornithophilus umbrinus, Austromenopon lutescens, Colpocephalum heterosoma, Colpocephalum turbinatum, Eidmanniella pustulosa, Nosopon casteli, Pectinopygus bassani, Pseudomenopon pilosum, Trinoton femoratum, Trinoton querquedulae, Craspedorrhynchus platystomus, Degeeriella fulva, Falcolipeurus quadripustulatus, Lunaceps schismatus. Also a nymph of the genus Strigiphilus was collected from a Eurasian eagle-owl. These findings contribute to the knowledge of avian chewing lice from important birds areas in Portugal.

Stray notes on two phthirapteran species occurring on Indian grey Horn Bill, Tockus birostris Scopoli (Coraciformes: Bucerotidae)

Two phthirapteran species (an amblyceran Chapinia clayae and an ischnoceran, Buceroemersonia clarkei) were recovered from eight Indian grey Horn Bills, during 2009 in district Rampur (India). The occurrence of B. clarkei on Indian birds has not been noted earlier. The population characteristics of both the species have been recorded. On the basis of crop contents C. clayae appeared to be a probable haematophagous. The egg chorion of B. clarkei appeared smooth that of C. clayae bears sculpturing.

Population levels of Phthiraptera on domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) (Anseriformes: Anatidae)

Three phthirapteran species (two Ischnocera and one Amblycera) were recovered from hundred ducks in district Bareilly and Rampur during 2011-2012. Prevalence of Anaticola crassicornis was comparatively higher (31 %) than that of Anatoecus dentatus (16 %) and Holomenpon leucoxanthum (28 %). However, the intensity of infestation of H. leucoxanthum (22.89) remained higher than the other two species. Distribution pattern of all lice were skewed but negative binomial model was not found to be a good fit. Sex ratios of all three species were skewed in favour of females (A. crassicornis-1:1.23, H. leucoxanthum-1:1.19, A. dentatus-1:1.72) and nymphal population exceeded the adult population (A. crassicornis-1:1.26, H. leucoxanthum-1:1.12, A. dentatus-1:1.61).

Novel Primers From Informative Nuclear Loci for Louse Molecular Phylogenetics (Insecta: Phthiraptera)

While parasitic lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) have historically been an important model taxon for understanding host-parasite coevolution, very few molecular markers have been developed for phylogenetic analysis. The current markers are insufficient to resolve many of the deeper nodes in this group; therefore, sequences from additional genetic loci are necessary. Here, we design primers targeting several nuclear protein coding genes based on a complete genome and transcriptome of Pediculus humanus L. plus transcriptomes and modest coverage genomic data from five genera of avian feather lice. These primers were tested on 32 genera of avian feather lice (Ischnocera), including multiple species within some genera. All of the new primer combinations produced sequences for the majority of the genera and had similar or higher divergences than the most widely used nuclear protein-coding gene in lice, EF-1α. These results indicate that these new loci will be useful in resolving phylogenetic relationships among parasitic lice.