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Kunst RF, de Waart DR, Wolters F, Duijst S, Vogels EW, Bolt I, Verheij J, Beuers U, Oude Elferink RP, van de Graaf SF. Systemic ASBT inactivation protects against liver damage in obstructive cholestasis in mice. JHEP Rep 2022; 4:100573. [PMID: 36160754 PMCID: PMC9494276 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2022.100573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Background & Aims Non-absorbable inhibitors of the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT; also called ileal bile acid transporter [IBAT]) are recently approved or in clinical development for multiple cholestatic liver disorders and lead to a reduction in pruritus and (markers for) liver injury. Unfortunately, non-absorbable ASBT inhibitors (ASBTi) can induce diarrhoea or may be ineffective if cholestasis is extensive and largely precludes intestinal excretion of bile acids. Systemically acting ASBTi that divert bile salts towards renal excretion may alleviate these issues. Methods Bile duct ligation (BDL) was performed in ASBT-deficient (ASBT knockout [KO]) mice as a model for chronic systemic ASBT inhibition in obstructive cholestasis. Co-infusion of radiolabelled taurocholate and inulin was used to quantify renal bile salt excretion after BDL. In a second (wild-type) mouse model, a combination of obeticholic acid (OCA) and intestine-restricted ASBT inhibition was used to lower the bile salt pool size before BDL. Results After BDL, ASBT KO mice had reduced plasma bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase compared with wild-type mice with BDL and showed a marked reduction in liver necrotic areas at histopathological analysis, suggesting decreased BDL-induced liver damage. Furthermore, ASBT KO mice had reduced bile salt pool size, lower plasma taurine-conjugated polyhydroxylated bile salt, and increased urinary bile salt excretion. Pretreatment with OCA + ASBTi in wild-type mice reduced the pool size and greatly improved liver injury markers and liver histology. Conclusions A reduced bile salt pool at the onset of cholestasis effectively lowers cholestatic liver injury in mice. Systemic ASBT inhibition may be valuable as treatment for cholestatic liver disease by lowering the pool size and increasing renal bile salt output even under conditions of minimal faecal bile salt secretion. Lay summary Novel treatment approaches against cholestatic liver disease (resulting in reduced or blocked flow of bile) involve non-absorbable inhibitors of the bile acid transport protein ASBT, but these are not always effective and/or can cause unwanted side effects. In this study, we demonstrate that systemic inhibition/inactivation of ASBT protects mice against developing severe cholestatic liver injury after bile duct ligation, by reducing bile salt pool size and increasing renal bile salt excretion.
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Key Words
- ALT, alanine transaminase
- ASBT, apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter
- ASBTi, ASBT inhibitors
- AST, aspartate transaminase
- Alagille
- Apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT)
- BDL, bile duct ligation
- BSEP
- Bile salt pool size
- CCl4, carbon tetrachloride
- CK7, cytokeratin 7
- Cholestasis
- FRET, Förster resonance energy transfer
- G-OCA, glycine-conjugated OCA
- HepG2 cell, hepatocarcinoma cell
- IBAT
- MDR2, multidrug resistance protein 2
- NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
- NGM282, non-tumorigenic fibroblast growth factor 19 analogue
- NTCP
- NTCP, Na+/taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide
- NucleoBAS, nuclear Bile Acid Sensor
- OCA, obeticholic acid
- PBC, primary biliary cholangitis
- PFIC
- PentaOH, pentahydroxylated
- RT-qPCR, real-time quantitative PCR
- Renal excretion
- T-OCA, taurine-conjugated OCA
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TetraOH, tetrahydroxylated
- U2OS, osteosarcoma cell
- UHPLC-MS, ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry
- WT, wild-type
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Affiliation(s)
- Roni F. Kunst
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk R. de Waart
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Wolters
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands
| | - Suzanne Duijst
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands
| | - Esther W. Vogels
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands
| | - Isabelle Bolt
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands
| | - Joanne Verheij
- Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands,Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ulrich Beuers
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands,Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald P.J. Oude Elferink
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands,Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stan F.J. van de Graaf
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Amsterdam Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism (AGEM), Amsterdam University Medical Centers, The Netherlands,Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,Corresponding author. Address: Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 69-71, 1105 BK Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31-020-5668832; Fax: +31-020-5669190.
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Li CZ, Ogawa H, Ng SS, Chen X, Kishimoto E, Sakabe K, Fukami A, Hu YC, Mayhew CN, Hellmann J, Miethke A, Tasnova NL, Blackford SJ, Tang ZM, Syanda AM, Ma L, Xiao F, Sambrotta M, Tavabie O, Soares F, Baker O, Danovi D, Hayashi H, Thompson RJ, Rashid ST, Asai A. Human iPSC-derived hepatocyte system models cholestasis with tight junction protein 2 deficiency. JHEP Rep 2022; 4:100446. [PMID: 35284810 PMCID: PMC8904612 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2022.100446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background & Aims The truncating mutations in tight junction protein 2 (TJP2) cause progressive cholestasis, liver failure, and hepatocyte carcinogenesis. Due to the lack of effective model systems, there are no targeted medications for the liver pathology with TJP2 deficiency. We leveraged the technologies of patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and CRISPR genome-editing, and we aim to establish a disease model which recapitulates phenotypes of patients with TJP2 deficiency. Methods We differentiated iPSC to hepatocyte-like cells (iHep) on the Transwell membrane in a polarized monolayer. Immunofluorescent staining of polarity markers was detected by a confocal microscope. The epithelial barrier function and bile acid transport of bile canaliculi were quantified between the two chambers of Transwell. The morphology of bile canaliculi was measured in iHep cultured in the Matrigel sandwich system using a fluorescent probe and live-confocal imaging. Results The iHep differentiated from iPSC with TJP2 mutations exhibited intracellular inclusions of disrupted apical membrane structures, distorted canalicular networks, altered distribution of apical and basolateral markers/transporters. The directional bile acid transport of bile canaliculi was compromised in the mutant hepatocytes, resembling the disease phenotypes observed in the liver of patients. Conclusions Our iPSC-derived in vitro hepatocyte system revealed canalicular membrane disruption in TJP2 deficient hepatocytes and demonstrated the ability to model cholestatic disease with TJP2 deficiency to serve as a platform for further pathophysiologic study and drug discovery. Lay summary We investigated a genetic liver disease, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis (PFIC), which causes severe liver disease in newborns and infants due to a lack of gene called TJP2. By using cutting-edge stem cell technology and genome editing methods, we established a novel disease modeling system in cell culture experiments. Our experiments demonstrated that the lack of TJP2 induced abnormal cell polarity and disrupted bile acid transport. These findings will lead to the subsequent investigation to further understand disease mechanisms and develop an effective treatment.
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Key Words
- ALB, albumin
- ASGR2, asialoglycoprotein receptor 2
- ATP1a1, ATPases subunit alpha-1
- BMP4, bone morphogenetic protein 4
- BSA-FAF, bovine serum albumin fatty acid-free
- BSEP, bile salt export pump
- Bile acid transport
- CDFDA, 5-(and-6)-carboxy-2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein
- Cellular polarity
- DE, definitive endoderm
- DILI, drug-induced liver injury
- FGF2, fibroblast growth factor 2
- GCA, glycocholate
- GCDCA, glycochenodeoxycholate
- HCM, Hepatocyte Culture Medium
- HE, hepatic endodermal
- HGF, hepatocyte growth factor
- HNF4a, hepatic nuclear factor 4a
- MDCKII, Madin–Darby canine kidney II
- MRP2, multidrug resistance-associated protein 2
- NTCP, Na+-TCA cotransporter
- PFIC (progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis)
- PFIC, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis
- PI, propidium iodide
- RT-qPCR, quantitative reverse transcription PCR
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TCDCA, taurochenodeoxycholate
- TEER, transepithelial electrical resistance
- TEM, transmission electron microscopy
- TJP1, tight junction protein 1
- TJP2, tight junction protein 2
- iHep, iPSC-derived hepatocytes
- iPSC, induced pluripotent stem cell
- sgRNA, single-guide RNA
- ssODN, single-stranded oligonucleotide-DNA
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zheng Li
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Hiromi Ogawa
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Soon Seng Ng
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Xindi Chen
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Eriko Kishimoto
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Kokoro Sakabe
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Aiko Fukami
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Yueh-Chiang Hu
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | - Jennifer Hellmann
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Alexander Miethke
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Nahrin L. Tasnova
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | | | - Zu Ming Tang
- Stem Cell Hotel, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Adam M. Syanda
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Liang Ma
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Fang Xiao
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Melissa Sambrotta
- Institute of Liver Studies King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Tavabie
- Institute of Liver Studies King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Oliver Baker
- Genome Editing and Embryology Core Facility, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Davide Danovi
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Hisamitsu Hayashi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - S. Tamir Rashid
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Akihiro Asai
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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3
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Sanyal AJ, Ling L, Beuers U, DePaoli AM, Lieu HD, Harrison SA, Hirschfield GM. Potent suppression of hydrophobic bile acids by aldafermin, an FGF19 analogue, across metabolic and cholestatic liver diseases. JHEP Rep 2021; 3:100255. [PMID: 33898959 PMCID: PMC8056274 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2021.100255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background & Aims Higher serum bile acid levels are associated with an increased risk of cirrhosis and liver-related morbidity and mortality. Herein, we report secondary analyses of aldafermin, an engineered analogue of the gut hormone fibroblast growth factor 19, on the circulating bile acid profile in prospective, phase II studies in patients with metabolic or cholestatic liver disease. Methods One hundred and seventy-six patients with biopsy-confirmed non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and fibrosis and elevated liver fat content (≥8% by magnetic resonance imaging-proton density fat fraction) received 0.3 mg (n = 23), 1 mg (n = 49), 3 mg (n = 49), 6 mg (n = 28) aldafermin or placebo (n = 27) for 12 weeks. Sixty-two patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and elevated alkaline phosphatase (>1.5× upper limit of normal) received 1 mg (n = 21), 3 mg (n = 21) aldafermin or placebo (n = 20) for 12 weeks. Serum samples were collected on day 1 and week 12 for determination of bile acid profile and neoepitope-specific N-terminal pro-peptide of type III collagen (Pro-C3), a direct measure of fibrogenesis. Results Treatment with aldafermin resulted in significant dose-dependent reductions in serum bile acids. In particular, bile acids with higher hydrophobicity indices, such as deoxycholic acid, lithocholic acid, glycodeoxycholic acid, glycochenodeoxycholic acid, and glycocholic acid, were markedly lowered by aldafermin in both NASH and PSC populations. Moreover, aldafermin predominantly suppressed the glycine-conjugated bile acids, rather than the taurine-conjugated bile acids. Changes in levels of bile acids correlated with changes in the novel fibrogenesis marker Pro-C3, which detects a neo-epitope of the type III collagen during its formation, in the pooled NASH and PSC populations. Conclusions Aldafermin markedly reduced major hydrophobic bile acids that have greater detergent activity and cytotoxicity. Our data provide evidence that bile acids may contribute to sustaining a pro-fibrogenic microenvironment in the liver across metabolic and cholestatic liver diseases. Lay summary Aldafermin is an analogue of a gut hormone, which is in development as a treatment for patients with chronic liver disease. Herein, we show that aldafermin can potently and robustly suppress the toxic, hydrophobic bile acids irrespective of disease aetiology. The therapeutic strategy utilising aldafermin may be broadly applicable to other chronic gastrointestinal and liver disorders. Clinical Trials Registration The study is registered at Clinicaltrials.govNCT02443116 and NCT02704364. Higher serum bile acid levels are associated with an increased risk of liver-related morbidity and mortality. Aldafermin produces significant dose-dependent reductions in toxic hydrophobic bile acids in NASH and PSC. Changes in bile acids correlate with changes in the novel fibrogenesis marker Pro-C3. Bile acids may contribute to a pro-fibrogenic microenvironment in the liver.
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Key Words
- ALP, alkaline phosphatase
- ALT, alanine aminotransferase
- AST, aspartate aminotransferase
- BAAT, bile acid-CoA:amino acid N-acyltransferase
- Bile acid synthesis
- CA, cholic acid
- CDCA, chenodeoxycholic acid
- DCA, deoxycholic acid
- ELF test, Enhanced Liver Fibrosis test
- FGF19, fibroblast growth factor 19
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- Fibroblast growth factor
- Fibrogenesis
- G/T ratio, ratio of glycine to taurine conjugates of bile acids
- GCA, glycocholic acid
- GCDCA, glycochenodeoxycholic acid
- GDCA, glycodeoxycholic acid
- GLCA, glycolithocholic acid
- LCA, lithocholic acid
- MRI-PDFF, magnetic resonance imaging-proton density fat fraction
- NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
- NAS, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease activity score
- NASH CRN, NASH Clinical Research Network
- NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
- Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
- PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis
- Primary sclerosing cholangitis
- Pro-C3
- Pro-C3, neoepitope-specific N-terminal pro-peptide of type III collagen
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TCDCA, taurochenodeoxycholic acid
- TDCA, taurodeoxycholic acid
- TLCA, taurolithocholic acid
- UDCA, ursodeoxycholic acid
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lei Ling
- NGM Biopharmaceuticals, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ulrich Beuers
- Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Hsiao D Lieu
- NGM Biopharmaceuticals, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Stephen A Harrison
- Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Pinnacle Clinical Research, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Gideon M Hirschfield
- Toronto Centre for Liver Disease, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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4
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Grzych G, Chávez-Talavera O, Descat A, Thuillier D, Verrijken A, Kouach M, Legry V, Verkindt H, Raverdy V, Legendre B, Caiazzo R, Van Gaal L, Goossens JF, Paumelle R, Francque S, Pattou F, Haas JT, Tailleux A, Staels B. NASH-related increases in plasma bile acid levels depend on insulin resistance. JHEP Rep 2020; 3:100222. [PMID: 33615207 PMCID: PMC7878982 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2020.100222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & Aims Plasma bile acids (BAs) have been extensively studied as pathophysiological actors in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). However, results from clinical studies are often complicated by the association of NASH with type 2 diabetes (T2D), obesity, and insulin resistance (IR). Here, we sought to dissect the relationship between NASH, T2D, and plasma BA levels in a large patient cohort. Methods Four groups of patients from the Biological Atlas of Severe Obesity (ABOS) cohort (Clinical Trials number NCT01129297) were included based on the presence or absence of histologically evaluated NASH with or without coincident T2D. Patients were matched for BMI, homeostatic model assessment 2 (HOMA2)-assessed IR, glycated haemoglobin, age, and gender. To study the effect of IR and BMI on the association of plasma BA and NASH, patients from the HEPADIP study were included. In both cohorts, fasting plasma BA concentrations were measured. Results Plasma BA concentrations were higher in NASH compared with No-NASH patients both in T2D and NoT2D patients from the ABOS cohort. As we previously reported that plasma BA levels were unaltered in NASH patients of the HEPADIP cohort, we assessed the impact of BMI and IR on the association of NASH and BA on the combined BA datasets. Our results revealed that NASH-associated increases in plasma total cholic acid (CA) concentrations depend on the degree of HOMA2-assessed systemic IR, but not on β-cell function nor on BMI. Conclusions Plasma BA concentrations are elevated only in those NASH patients exhibiting pronounced IR. Lay summary Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a progressive liver disease that frequently occurs in patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Reliable markers for the diagnosis of NASH are needed. Plasma bile acids have been proposed as NASH biomarkers. Herein, we found that plasma bile acids are only elevated in patients with NASH when significant insulin resistance is present, limiting their utility as NASH markers. Bile acids have been studied as pathophysiological actors and biomarkers in NASH. Plasma BAs have been reported to be higher in NASH vs. No-NASH patients. Plasma BAs are altered in patients with T2D, IR, and obesity, risk factors for NASH. Thus, the independent association between plasma BA increases and NASH is unclear. NASH-associated increases in plasma BA depend on the degree of insulin sensitivity.
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Key Words
- ABOS, Biological Atlas of Severe Obesity
- ADA, American Diabetes Association
- BA, bile acids
- Bile acids
- C4, 7alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one
- CA, cholic acid
- CDCA, chenodeoxycholic acid
- DCA, deoxycholic acid
- Diabetes
- FPG, fasting plasma glycaemia
- FXR, farnesoid-X-receptor
- GCA, glycocholic acid
- GCDCA, glycochenodeoxycholic acid
- GDCA, glycodeoxycholic acid
- GHCA, glycohyocholic acid
- GHDCA, glycohyodeoxycholic acid
- GLCA, glycolithocholic acid
- GUDCA, glycoursodeoxycholic acid
- HCA, hyocholic acid
- HDCA, hyodeoxycholic acid
- HOMA2, homeostatic model assessment 2
- HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin
- IR, insulin resistance
- Insulin resistance
- LCA, lithocholic acid
- MAFLD, metabolic associated fatty liver disease
- NAFL, non-alcoholic fatty liver
- NAFLD
- NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
- NASH
- NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
- OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test
- Obesity
- T2D, type 2 diabetes
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TCDCA, taurochenodeoxycholic acid
- TDCA, taurodeoxycholic acid
- THCA, taurohyocholic acid
- THDCA, taurohyodeoxycholic acid
- TLCA, taurolithocholic acid
- TUDCA, tauroursodeoxycholic acid
- Translational study
- UDCA, ursodeoxycholic acid
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Grzych
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011- EGID, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Oscar Chávez-Talavera
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011- EGID, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Amandine Descat
- Univ. Lille, CHU Lille, EA 7365-GRITA-Groupe de Recherche sur les formes Injectables et les Technologies Associées, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Dorothée Thuillier
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1190 - EGID, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - An Verrijken
- Laboratory of Experimental Medicine and Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk/Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Antwerp University Hospital, 2650 Edegem/Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Mostafa Kouach
- Univ. Lille, CHU Lille, EA 7365-GRITA-Groupe de Recherche sur les formes Injectables et les Technologies Associées, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Vanessa Legry
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011- EGID, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Hélène Verkindt
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1190 - EGID, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Violeta Raverdy
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1190 - EGID, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Benjamin Legendre
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1190 - EGID, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Robert Caiazzo
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1190 - EGID, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Luc Van Gaal
- Laboratory of Experimental Medicine and Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk/Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Antwerp University Hospital, 2650 Edegem/Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jean-Francois Goossens
- Univ. Lille, CHU Lille, EA 7365-GRITA-Groupe de Recherche sur les formes Injectables et les Technologies Associées, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Réjane Paumelle
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011- EGID, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Sven Francque
- Laboratory of Experimental Medicine and Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk/Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Antwerp University Hospital, 2650, Edegem, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - François Pattou
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1190 - EGID, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Joel T Haas
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011- EGID, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Anne Tailleux
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011- EGID, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Bart Staels
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011- EGID, F-59000 Lille, France
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Sun L, Pang Y, Wang X, Wu Q, Liu H, Liu B, Liu G, Ye M, Kong W, Jiang C. Ablation of gut microbiota alleviates obesity-induced hepatic steatosis and glucose intolerance by modulating bile acid metabolism in hamsters. Acta Pharm Sin B 2019; 9:702-710. [PMID: 31384531 PMCID: PMC6664038 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Since metabolic process differs between humans and mice, studies were performed in hamsters, which are generally considered to be a more appropriate animal model for studies of obesity-related metabolic disorders. The modulation of gut microbiota, bile acids and the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) axis is correlated with obesity-induced insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in mice. However, the interactions among the gut microbiota, bile acids and FXR in metabolic disorders remained largely unexplored in hamsters. In the current study, hamsters fed a 60% high-fat diet (HFD) were administered vehicle or an antibiotic cocktail by gavage twice a week for four weeks. Antibiotic treatment alleviated HFD-induced glucose intolerance, hepatic steatosis and inflammation accompanied with decreased hepatic lipogenesis and elevated thermogenesis in subcutaneous white adipose tissue (sWAT). In the livers of antibiotic-treated hamsters, cytochrome P450 family 7 subfamily B member 1 (CYP7B1) in the alternative bile acid synthesis pathway was upregulated, contributing to a more hydrophilic bile acid profile with increased tauro-β-muricholic acid (TβMCA). The intestinal FXR signaling was suppressed but remained unchanged in the liver. This study is of potential translational significance in determining the role of gut microbiota-mediated bile acid metabolism in modulating diet-induced glucose intolerance and hepatic steatosis in the hamster.
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Key Words
- ALT, alanine amino-transferase
- AST, aspartate transaminase
- AUC, area under curve
- ApoB, apolipoprotein B
- BAs, bile acids
- BSH, bile acid hydrolase
- CA, cholic acid
- CAPE, caffeic acid phenethyl ester
- CDCA, chenodeoxycholic acid
- CETP, cholesterol ester transfer protein
- CYP27A1, cytochrome P450 family 27 subfamily A member 1
- CYP7A1, cytochrome P450 family 7 subfamily A member 1
- CYP7B1
- CYP7B1, cytochrome P450 family 7 subfamily B member 1
- CYP8B1, cytochrome P450 family 8 subfamily B member 1
- DCA, deoxycholic acid
- FGF15/19, fibroblast growth factor 15/19
- FXR
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- GCA, glycocholic acid
- GCDCA, glycochenodeoxycholic acid
- GTT, glucose tolerance test
- Gut microbiota
- H&E, hematoxylin and eosin
- HFD, high fat diet
- ITT, insulin tolerance test
- LCA, lithocholic acid
- Metabolic disorders
- NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
- NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
- PBA/SBA, primary bile acids to secondary bile acids
- T2D, type 2 diabetes
- TC, total cholesterol
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TG, triglycerides
- TβMCA
- TβMCA, tauro-β-muricholic acid
- UDCA, ursodeoxycholic acid
- UPLC–MS/MS, ultra performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry
- VLDL, very low-density lipoprotein
- eWAT, epididymal white adipose tissue
- sWAT, subcutaneous white adipose tissue
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Sun
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yuanyuan Pang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xuemei Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Qing Wu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Huiying Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Bo Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
| | - George Liu
- Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences and Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Min Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Wei Kong
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Changtao Jiang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and the Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, China
- Corresponding author.
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Kübeck R, Bonet-Ripoll C, Hoffmann C, Walker A, Müller VM, Schüppel VL, Lagkouvardos I, Scholz B, Engel KH, Daniel H, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Haller D, Clavel T, Klingenspor M. Dietary fat and gut microbiota interactions determine diet-induced obesity in mice. Mol Metab 2016; 5:1162-1174. [PMID: 27900259 PMCID: PMC5123202 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Gut microbiota may promote positive energy balance; however, germfree mice can be either resistant or susceptible to diet-induced obesity (DIO) depending on the type of dietary intervention. We here sought to identify the dietary constituents that determine the susceptibility to body fat accretion in germfree (GF) mice. Methods GF and specific pathogen free (SPF) male C57BL/6N mice were fed high-fat diets either based on lard or palm oil for 4 wks. Mice were metabolically characterized at the end of the feeding trial. FT-ICR-MS and UPLC-TOF-MS were used for cecal as well as hepatic metabolite profiling and cecal bile acids quantification, respectively. Hepatic gene expression was examined by qRT-PCR and cecal gut microbiota of SPF mice was analyzed by high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Results GF mice, but not SPF mice, were completely DIO resistant when fed a cholesterol-rich lard-based high-fat diet, whereas on a cholesterol-free palm oil-based high-fat diet, DIO was independent of gut microbiota. In GF lard-fed mice, DIO resistance was conveyed by increased energy expenditure, preferential carbohydrate oxidation, and increased fecal fat and energy excretion. Cecal metabolite profiling revealed a shift in bile acid and steroid metabolites in these lean mice, with a significant rise in 17β-estradiol, which is known to stimulate energy expenditure and interfere with bile acid metabolism. Decreased cecal bile acid levels were associated with decreased hepatic expression of genes involved in bile acid synthesis. These metabolic adaptations were largely attenuated in GF mice fed the palm-oil based high-fat diet. We propose that an interaction of gut microbiota and cholesterol metabolism is essential for fat accretion in normal SPF mice fed cholesterol-rich lard as the main dietary fat source. This is supported by a positive correlation between bile acid levels and specific bacteria of the order Clostridiales (phylum Firmicutes) as a characteristic feature of normal SPF mice fed lard. Conclusions In conclusion, our study identified dietary cholesterol as a candidate ingredient affecting the crosstalk between gut microbiota and host metabolism. Cholesterol-based but not plant sterol-based high-fat diet protects germfree (GF) mice from diet-induced obesity (DIO). DIO resistant GF mice show preferential carbohydrate oxidation, higher energy expenditure and energy and fat excretion. DIO resistance in GF mice is accompanied by increased steroid hormone levels but decreased bile acid levels in the cecum. Substrate oxidation and fat excretion in DIO resistant GF mice is linked to decreased hepatic Cyp7a1 and Nr1h4 expression.
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Key Words
- ANOVA, analysis of variance
- Abcg5, ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 5
- Abcg8, ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 8
- Actb, beta actin
- Akr1d1, aldo-keto-reductase family member 1
- BMR, basal metabolic rate
- CA, cholic acid
- CD, control diet
- CDCA, chenodeoxycholic acid
- CIDEA, cell death inducing DFFA-like effector
- COX4, cytochrome c oxidase subunit 4
- Cyp27a1, cholesterol 27 alpha-hydroxylase
- Cyp7a1, cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase
- DCA, deoxycholic acid
- DEE, daily energy expenditure
- DIO, diet-induced obesity
- Dhcr7, 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase
- Diet-induced obesity resistance
- Eef2, eukaryotic elongation factor 2
- Energy balance
- FT-ICR-MS, Fourier transform-Ion Cyclotron Resonance-Mass Spectrometry
- FT-IR, Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy
- GF, germfree
- GUSB, beta-glucuronidase
- Germfree
- HDCA, hyodeoxycholic acid
- HP, heat production
- High-fat diet
- Hmgcr, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl Coenzyme A reductase
- Hmgcs, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl Coenzyme A synthase 1
- Hprt1, hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase
- Hsd11b1, hydroxysteroid (11-β) dehydrogenase 1
- Hsp90, heat shock protein 90
- LHFD, high-fat diet based on lard
- Ldlr, low density lipoprotein receptor
- MCA, muricholic acid
- Nr1h2, nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group H, member 2 (liver X receptor β)
- Nr1h3, nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group H, member 3 (liver X receptor α)
- Nr1h4, nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group H, member 4 (farnesoid X receptor α)
- PHFD, high-fat diet based on palm oil
- PRDM16, PR domain containing 16
- SPF, specific pathogen free
- Srebf1, sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TMCA, Tauromuricholic acid
- Tf2b, transcription factor II B
- UCP1, uncoupling protein 1
- UDCA, ursodeoxycholic acid
- UPLC-TOF-MS, ultraperformance liquid chromatography-time of flight-mass spectrometry
- qPCR, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaela Kübeck
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Chair of Molecular Nutritional Medicine, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, EKFZ - Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Catalina Bonet-Ripoll
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Chair of Molecular Nutritional Medicine, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, EKFZ - Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Christina Hoffmann
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Chair of Molecular Nutritional Medicine, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, EKFZ - Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Alesia Walker
- Research Unit Analytical BioGeoChemistry, Department of Environmental Sciences, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr.1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Veronika Maria Müller
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Chair of Nutritional Physiology, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Valentina Luise Schüppel
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Chair of Nutrition and Immunology, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Ilias Lagkouvardos
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Birgit Scholz
- Chair of General Food Technology, Technische Universität München, Alte Akademie 10, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz Engel
- Chair of General Food Technology, Technische Universität München, Alte Akademie 10, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Hannelore Daniel
- Chair of Nutritional Physiology, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Philippe Schmitt-Kopplin
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Research Unit Analytical BioGeoChemistry, Department of Environmental Sciences, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr.1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Alte Akademie 10, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Dirk Haller
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Chair of Nutrition and Immunology, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Thomas Clavel
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Martin Klingenspor
- ZIEL - Institute for Food and Health, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Chair of Molecular Nutritional Medicine, Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, EKFZ - Else Kröner-Fresenius-Center for Nutritional Medicine, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 2, 85354 Freising, Germany.
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Manley S, Ding W. Role of farnesoid X receptor and bile acids in alcoholic liver disease. Acta Pharm Sin B 2015; 5:158-67. [PMID: 26579442 PMCID: PMC4629219 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2014.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is one of the major causes of liver morbidity and mortality worldwide. Chronic alcohol consumption leads to development of liver pathogenesis encompassing steatosis, inflammation, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and in extreme cases, hepatocellular carcinoma. Moreover, ALD may also associate with cholestasis. Emerging evidence now suggests that farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and bile acids also play important roles in ALD. In this review, we discuss the effects of alcohol consumption on FXR, bile acids and gut microbiome as well as their impacts on ALD. Moreover, we summarize the findings on FXR, FoxO3a (forkhead box-containing protein class O3a) and PPARα (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha) in regulation of autophagy-related gene transcription program and liver injury in response to alcohol exposure.
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Key Words
- 6ECDCA, 6α-ethyl-chenodeoxycholic acid
- ADH, alcohol dehydrogenase
- AF, activation function
- AKT, protein kinase B
- ALD, alcoholic liver disease
- ALT, alanine aminotransferase
- ASBT, apical sodium dependent bile acid transporter
- Alcoholic liver disease
- Atg, autophagy-related
- Autophagy
- BAAT, bile acid CoA:amino acid N-acyltransferase
- BACS, bile acid CoA synthetase
- BSEP, bile salt export pump
- Bile acids
- CA, cholic acid
- CB1R, cannabinoid receptor type 1
- CDCA, chenodeoxycholic acid
- CREB, cAMP response element-binding protein
- CREBH, cAMP response element-binding protein, hepatocyte specific
- CRTC2, CREB regulated transcription coactivator 2
- CYP, cytochrome P450
- DCA, deoxycholic acid
- DR1, direct repeat 1
- FGF15/19, fibroblast growth factor 15/19
- FGFR4, fibroblast growth factor receptor 4
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- Farnesoid X receptor
- FoxO3
- FoxO3a, forkhead box-containing protein class O3a
- GGT, gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase
- HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma
- IR-1, inverted repeat-1
- KO, knockout
- LC3, light chain 3
- LRH-1, liver receptor homolog 1
- LXR, liver X receptor
- MRP4, multidrug resistance protein 4
- NAD+, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
- NTCP, sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide
- OSTα/β, organic solute transporter α/β
- PE, phosphatidylethanolamine
- PPARα, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- RXRα, retinoid X receptor-alpha
- SHP, small heterodimer partner
- SQSTM, sequestome-1
- SREBP1, sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1
- Sirt1, sirtuin 1
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TFEB, transcription factor EB
- TLR4, toll-like receptor 4
- TUDCA, tauro-ursodeoxycholic acid
- UDCA, ursodeoxycholic acid
- WAY, WAY-362450
- WT, wild type
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wenxing Ding
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 913 5889813; fax: +1 913 5887501.
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8
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Abstract
This review focuses on various components of bile acid signaling in relation to cholangiocytes. Their roles as targets for potential therapies for cholangiopathies are also explored. While many factors are involved in these complex signaling pathways, this review emphasizes the roles of transmembrane G protein coupled receptor (TGR5), farnesoid X receptor (FXR), ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) and the bicarbonate umbrella. Following a general background on cholangiocytes and bile acids, we will expand the review and include sections that are most recently known (within 5-7 years) regarding the field of bile acid signaling and cholangiocyte function. These findings all demonstrate that bile acids influence biliary functions which can, in turn, regulate the cholangiocyte response during pathological events.
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Key Words
- ABCB4, ATP-binding cassette, sub-family B
- AE2, anion exchanger 2
- AKT, protein kinases B
- ASBT, apical sodium bile acid transporter
- BA, bile acid
- BASIC, bile acid sensitive ion channel
- Bile acids
- COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2
- CYP27, sterol-27-hydroxylase
- CYP7A1, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase
- Ca2+, intracellular calcium
- Cholangiocytes
- Cl−/HCO3−, chloride bicarbonate exchanger
- EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor
- ERK, extracellular regulated protein kinases
- FGF, fibroblast growth factor
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- HGF, hepatocyte growth factor
- IL-6, interleukin-6
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- OST, organic solute transporter
- PBC, primary biliary cirrhosis
- PC-1, polycystin-1
- PM, plasma membrane
- PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis
- Receptors
- S1P, sphingosine-1-phosphate
- S1PR2, sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2
- SR, secretin receptor
- Signaling
- TCA, taurocholic acid
- TGR5, transmembrane G protein coupled receptor
- UDCA, ursodeoxycholic acid
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Jones
- Baylor Scott & White Digestive Disease Research Center, Temple, TX 76504, USA
| | - Gianfranco Alpini
- Division Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX 76504, USA
- Baylor Scott & White Digestive Disease Research Center, Temple, TX 76504, USA
- Department of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Temple, TX 76504, USA
| | - Heather Francis
- Division Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX 76504, USA
- Baylor Scott & White Digestive Disease Research Center, Temple, TX 76504, USA
- Department of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Temple, TX 76504, USA
- Corresponding author at: Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX 76504, USA. Tel.: +1 254 7431048; fax: +1 254 7430378, +1 254 7430555.
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