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Wadsworth JDF, Joiner S, Linehan JM, Jack K, Al-Doujaily H, Costa H, Ingold T, Taema M, Zhang F, Sandberg MK, Brandner S, Tran L, Vikøren T, Våge J, Madslien K, Ytrehus B, Benestad SL, Asante EA, Collinge J. Humanized Transgenic Mice Are Resistant to Chronic Wasting Disease Prions From Norwegian Reindeer and Moose. J Infect Dis 2022; 226:933-937. [PMID: 33502474 PMCID: PMC9470110 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiab033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy or prion disease affecting cervids. In 2016, the first cases of CWD were reported in Europe in Norwegian wild reindeer and moose. The origin and zoonotic potential of these new prion isolates remain unknown. In this study to investigate zoonotic potential we inoculated brain tissue from CWD-infected Norwegian reindeer and moose into transgenic mice overexpressing human prion protein. After prolonged postinoculation survival periods no evidence for prion transmission was seen, suggesting that the zoonotic potential of these isolates is low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D F Wadsworth
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Joiner
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jacqueline M Linehan
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kezia Jack
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Huda Al-Doujaily
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Helena Costa
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thea Ingold
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maged Taema
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Fuquan Zhang
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Malin K Sandberg
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sebastian Brandner
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, University College London Queen Square Institute of Neurology and Division of Neuropathology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, University College London National Health Service Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Linh Tran
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Jørn Våge
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | | | - Emmanuel A Asante
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Collinge
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit at University College London, University College London Institute of Prion Diseases, London, United Kingdom
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Yuan Q, Rowden G, Wolf TM, Schwabenlander MD, Larsen PA, Bartelt-Hunt SL, Bartz JC. Sensitive detection of chronic wasting disease prions recovered from environmentally relevant surfaces. Environ Int 2022; 166:107347. [PMID: 35753198 PMCID: PMC9749837 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) has been identified in 30 states in the United States, four provinces in Canada, and recently emerged in Scandinavia. The association of CWD prions with environmental materials such as soil, plants, and surfaces may enhance the persistence of CWD prion infectivity in the environment exacerbating disease transmission. Identifying and quantifying CWD prions in the environment is significant for prion monitoring and disease transmission control. A systematic method for CWD prion quantification from associated environmental materials, however, does not exist. In this study, we developed an innovative method for extracting prions from swabs and recovering CWD prions swabbed from different types of surfaces including glass, stainless steel, and wood. We found that samples dried on swabs were unfavorable for prion extraction, with the greatest prion recovery from wet swabs. Using this swabbing technique, the recovery of CWD prions dried to glass or stainless steel was approximately 30% in most cases, whereas that from wood was undetectable by conventional prion immunodetection techniques. Real-time quake-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) analysis of these same samples resulted in an increase of the detection limit of CWD prions from stainless steel by 4 orders of magnitude. More importantly, the RT-QuIC detection of CWD prions recovered from stainless steel surfaces using this method was similar to the original CWD prion load applied to the surface. This combined surface swabbing and RT-QuIC detection method provides an ultrasensitive means for prion detection across many settings and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Yuan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska, 68178, United States of America
| | - Gage Rowden
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, United States of America
| | - Tiffany M Wolf
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, United States of America
| | - Marc D Schwabenlander
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, United States of America
| | - Peter A Larsen
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, United States of America
| | - Shannon L Bartelt-Hunt
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Peter Kiewit Institute, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Omaha, Nebraska, 68182, United States of America
| | - Jason C Bartz
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska, 68178, United States of America.
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3
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Holz CL, Darish JR, Straka K, Grosjean N, Bolin S, Kiupel M, Sreevatsan S. Evaluation of Real-Time Quaking-Induced Conversion, ELISA, and Immunohistochemistry for Chronic Wasting Disease Diagnosis. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:824815. [PMID: 35118153 PMCID: PMC8803730 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.824815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible prion disorder, primarily affecting free-ranging and captive cervids in North America (United States and Canada), South Korea, and Europe (Finland, Norway, and Sweden). Current diagnostic methods used in the United States for detection of CWD in hunter harvested deer involve demonstration of the causal misfolded prion protein (PrPCWD) in the obex or retropharyngeal lymph nodes (RLNs) using an antigen detection ELISA as a screening tool, followed by a confirmation by the gold standard method, immunohistochemistry (IHC). Real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay is a newer approach that amplifies misfolded CWD prions in vitro and has facilitated CWD prion detection in a variety of tissues, body fluids, and excreta. The current study was undertaken to compare ELISA, IHC, and RT-QuIC on RLNs (n = 1,300 animals) from white-tailed deer (WTD) in Michigan. In addition, prescapular, prefemoral and popliteal lymph nodes collected from a small subset (n = 7) of animals were tested. Lastly, the location of the positive samples within Michigan was documented and the percentage of CWD positive RLNs was calculated by sex and age. ELISA and RT-QuIC detected PrPCWD in 184 and 178 out of 1,300 RLNs, respectively. Of the 184 ELISA positive samples, 176 were also IHC positive for CWD. There were seven discordant results when comparing IHC and ELISA. RT-QuIC revealed that six of the seven samples matched the IHC outcomes. One RLN was negative by IHC, but positive by ELISA and RT-QuIC. RT-QuIC, IHC, and ELISA also detected PrPCWD in prescapular, prefemoral and popliteal lymph nodes. CWD infection heterogeneities were observed in different age and sex groups, with young males having higher CWD prevalence. All, except one, CWD positive RLNs analyzed were from ten Counties geographically located in the West Michigan region of the Lower Peninsula. Taken together, we show evidence that the RT-QuIC assay is comparable to ELISA and IHC and could be helpful for routine CWD detection in surveillance programs. RT-QuIC also demonstrated that CWD prions are distributed across lymph nodes in a variety of anatomic locations. A multi-laboratory validation on blinded sample panels is underway and is likely to help to provide insight into the variability (lab-to-lab), analytical sensitivity, and specificity of gold standard diagnostics vs. RT-QuIC assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine L Holz
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Joseph R Darish
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Kelly Straka
- Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Nicole Grosjean
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Steven Bolin
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Matti Kiupel
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Srinand Sreevatsan
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
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Hwang S, Beckley D, Alekseev KP, Nicholson EM. Hofmeister Effect in RT-QuIC Seeding Activity of Chronic Wasting Disease Prions. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:709965. [PMID: 34660549 PMCID: PMC8515057 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.709965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) that causes a fatal neurodegenerative disease in cervids. Cases of CWD are rapidly increasing in North America among wild and farmed cervid populations, and potential for zoonotic transmission is not yet determined. Therefore, in order to manage the disease, it is imperative to devise a system that can detect CWD during its early phases to prevent spread to new captive herds through introduction of CWD-affected animals into otherwise CWD-free herds. Real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assays have been applied to detect the presence of disease-associated prions from various samples in both animals and humans. In this study, we have tested the use of five Hofmeister anions that range from weakly hydrating to strongly hydrating: Na3citrate, Na2SO4, NaCl, NaI, and NaClO4 in RT-QuIC reactions for CWD seeding activity using different recombinant prion proteins as substrates. This work shows how the ionic environment of the RT-QuIC reaction can enhance or diminish the seeding activity. The use of Na2SO4 or NaI as the sodium salt for RT-QuIC using bank vole recombinant prion substrate for the detection of CWD using brain samples reduces the lag time to detect with reasonable specificity. For detection of the CWD in fecal samples, only NaI showed comparable reduction in lag time relative to NaCl but required reduced temperature to alleviate spontaneous fibril formation in negative control samples. Selection of the proper ion environment and recombinant prion protein substrate will make RT-QuIC a powerful diagnostic tool for early detection of CWD prions, further supporting CWD surveillance in wild and captive cervids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soyoun Hwang
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Animal Disease Center, Virus and Prion Research Unit, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Danielle Beckley
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Animal Disease Center, Virus and Prion Research Unit, Ames, IA, United States.,U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, United States
| | - Konstantin P Alekseev
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Animal Disease Center, Virus and Prion Research Unit, Ames, IA, United States.,U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, United States.,N. F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Eric M Nicholson
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Animal Disease Center, Virus and Prion Research Unit, Ames, IA, United States
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Maraud S, Roturier S. Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) in Sami Reindeer Herding: The Socio-Political Dimension of an Epizootic in an Indigenous Context. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:297. [PMID: 33503846 PMCID: PMC7911299 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is the most transmissible of the prion diseases. In 2016, an unexpected case was found in Norway, the first in Europe. Since then, there have been 32 confirmed cases in Norway, Sweden, and Finland. This paper aims to examine the situation from a social and political perspective: considering the management of CWD in the Swedish part of Sápmi-the Sami ancestral land; identifying the place of the Sami people in the risk management-because of the threats to Sami reindeer herding that CWD presents; and understanding how the disease can modify the modalities of Indigenous reindeer husbandry, whether or not CWD is epizootic. Based on interviews with various stakeholders and by examining the social sciences literature, this paper shows that the health risk management is structured by a politico-scientific controversy about the recognition, or not, of atypical and classical CWD. The Sami herders are currently cooperating with the state authorities in the surveillance program to sample their herds. This involvement takes place in a situation where the balance of power between the Sami people and the state, or the European Union, is framed by its colonial context. This has consequences with respect to the definition of a common interest and to implementing sanitary measures. The particular features of reindeer herding are seen as a challenge to managing CWD risk, compared with European health standards. We argue that CWD will greatly modify the modalities of Indigenous reindeer herding, whether there are positive cases or not in the Sami reindeer. By implementing new health guidelines, the authorities will create a cascading effect in Sami land and its use. The CWD situation in Fennoscandia is full of uncertainty but may cause a major shift in the organization and the governance of Sápmi. In September 2020, the identification of a new CWD case in a wild reindeer in Norway started a new episode in the disease management in Fennoscandia. Our paper raises various questions linked to understanding this new step in this crisis which is not only epidemiological, but also socio-cultural and political.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Maraud
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Ecologie Systématique Evolution, 91405 Orsay, France;
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Nemani SK, Myskiw JL, Lamoureux L, Booth SA, Sim VL. Exposure Risk of Chronic Wasting Disease in Humans. Viruses 2020; 12:v12121454. [PMID: 33348562 PMCID: PMC7766630 DOI: 10.3390/v12121454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of human prion diseases are sporadic, but acquired disease can occur, as seen with variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) following consumption of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). With increasing rates of cervid chronic wasting disease (CWD), there is concern that a new form of human prion disease may arise. Currently, there is no evidence of transmission of CWD to humans, suggesting the presence of a strong species barrier; however, in vitro and in vivo studies on the zoonotic potential of CWD have yielded mixed results. The emergence of different CWD strains is also concerning, as different strains can have different abilities to cross species barriers. Given that venison consumption is common in areas where CWD rates are on the rise, increased rates of human exposure are inevitable. If CWD was to infect humans, it is unclear how it would present clinically; in vCJD, it was strain-typing of vCJD prions that proved the causal link to BSE. Therefore, the best way to screen for CWD in humans is to have thorough strain-typing of harvested cervids and human CJD cases so that we will be in a position to detect atypical strains or strain shifts within the human CJD population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satish K. Nemani
- Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
- Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Jennifer L. Myskiw
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, Public Health Agency of Canada, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; (J.L.M.); (L.L.); (S.A.B.)
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
| | - Lise Lamoureux
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, Public Health Agency of Canada, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; (J.L.M.); (L.L.); (S.A.B.)
| | - Stephanie A. Booth
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, Public Health Agency of Canada, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; (J.L.M.); (L.L.); (S.A.B.)
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
| | - Valerie L. Sim
- Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
- Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
- Correspondence:
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Manne S, Kondru N, Nichols T, Lehmkuhl A, Thomsen B, Main R, Halbur P, Dutta S, Kanthasamy AG. Ante-mortem detection of chronic wasting disease in recto-anal mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues from elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) using real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay: A blinded collaborative study. Prion 2017; 11:415-430. [PMID: 29098931 DOI: 10.1080/19336896.2017.1368936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) characterized by fatal, progressive neurologic diseases with prolonged incubation periods and an accumulation of infectious misfolded prion proteins. Antemortem diagnosis is often difficult due to a long asymptomatic incubation period, differences in the pathogenesis of different prions, and the presence of very low levels of infectious prion in easily accessible samples. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a TSE affecting both wild and captive populations of cervids, including mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, moose, muntjac, and most recently, wild reindeer. This study represents a well-controlled evaluation of a newly developed real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay as a potential CWD diagnostic screening test using rectal biopsy sections from a depopulated elk herd. We evaluated 69 blinded samples of recto-anal mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (RAMALT) obtained from USDA Veterinary Services. The results were later un-blinded and statistically compared to immunohistochemical (IHC) results from the USDA National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) for RAMALT, obex, and medial retropharyngeal lymph node (MRPLN). Comparison of RAMALT RT-QuIC assay results with the IHC results of RAMALT revealed 92% relative sensitivity (95% confidence limits: 61.52-99.8%) and 95% relative specificity (95% confidence limits: 85.13-99%). Collectively, our results show a potential utility of the RT-QuIC assay to advance the development of a rapid, sensitive, and specific prion diagnostic assay for CWD prions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sireesha Manne
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences , College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University , Ames , IA , USA
| | - Naveen Kondru
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences , College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University , Ames , IA , USA
| | - Tracy Nichols
- b United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) , National Wildlife Research Center, Wildlife Services , Fort Collins , CO , USA
| | - Aaron Lehmkuhl
- c USDA, National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL), Veterinary Services , Ames , IA , USA
| | - Bruce Thomsen
- c USDA, National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL), Veterinary Services , Ames , IA , USA
| | - Rodger Main
- d Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine , Iowa State University , Ames , IA , USA
| | - Patrick Halbur
- d Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine , Iowa State University , Ames , IA , USA
| | - Somak Dutta
- e Department of Statistics , Iowa State University , Ames , IA , USA
| | - Anumantha G Kanthasamy
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences , College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University , Ames , IA , USA
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Wyckoff AC, Kane S, Lockwood K, Seligman J, Michel B, Hill D, Ortega A, Mangalea MR, Telling GC, Miller MW, Vercauteren K, Zabel MD. Clay Components in Soil Dictate Environmental Stability and Bioavailability of Cervid Prions in Mice. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1885. [PMID: 27933048 PMCID: PMC5120086 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) affects cervids and is the only known prion disease to affect free-ranging wildlife populations. CWD spread continues unabated, and exact mechanisms of its seemingly facile spread among deer and elk across landscapes in North America remain elusive. Here we confirm that naturally contaminated soil contains infectious CWD prions that can be transmitted to susceptible model organisms. We show that smectite clay content of soil potentiates prion binding capacity of different soil types from CWD endemic and non-endemic areas, likely contributing to environmental stability of bound prions. The smectite clay montmorillonite (Mte) increased prion retention and bioavailability in vivo. Trafficking experiments in live animals fed bound and unbound prions showed that mice retained significantly more Mte-bound than unbound prions. Mte promoted rapid uptake of prions from the stomach to the intestines via enterocytes and M cells, and then to macrophages and eventually CD21+ B cells in Peyer's patches and spleens. These results confirm clay components in soil as an important vector in CWD transmission at both environmental and organismal levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Christy Wyckoff
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Sarah Kane
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Krista Lockwood
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Jeff Seligman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Brady Michel
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Dana Hill
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Aimee Ortega
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Mihnea R Mangalea
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Glenn C Telling
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | | | - Kurt Vercauteren
- National Wildlife Research Center, Wildlife Services, United States Department of Agriculture Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Mark D Zabel
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Prion Research Center at Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO, USA
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